Wikipedia-FAN: 2018-04-22

2018年4月28日土曜日

قائمة الأغاني الفردية الأولى في تصنيف المملكة المتحدة 1980

新規更新されました。 April 28, 2018 at 07:38PM
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قائمة الأغاني الفردية الأولى في تصنيف المملكة المتحدة 1980
https://ift.tt/2KmQdkb

意味を調べるقانون الصوت الواحد

新規更新April 28, 2018 at 05:51PM
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قانون الصوت الواحد

صالح: إنشاء «قانون الصوت الواحد»

'''قانون الصوت الواحد''' أو '''مرسوم الصوت الواحد''' أو ما يُعرف رسميًا في [[دولة الكويت]] بمرسوم قانون رقم 20 لسنة 2012 أو '''قانون الدوائر الخمس وفق نظام الصوت الواحد'''، هو تعديل قانوني أصدره [[أمير الكويت]] [[صباح الأحمد الجابر الصباح]] بموجب المادة الحادية والسبعين من [[الدستور الكويتي]]، التي تجيز له أن يصدر بموجبها مراسيم لها قوة [[القانون]]، واستهدف المرسوم تعديل المادة الثانية من [[قانون الأصوات الأربعة]]، حيث نص التعديل على أن يكون لكل ناخب حق الإدلاء بصوت واحد في دائرته الانتخابية بدلًا من أربعة أصوات كما كانت تنص المادة. أجريت ثلاثة انتخابات نيابية وفق هذا القانون ما بين الفترة الممتدة بين (2012-2018).<ref>[https://ift.tt/2HxOCtR "صدور مرسوم الصوت الواحد"]، '''جريدة الرأي الكويتية - 23 تشرين الأوّل (أكتوبر) 2012'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>[https://ift.tt/2Hy2Iv9 "الكويت نحو انتخابات بصوت واحد مطلع ديسمبر المقبل"]، '''جريدة البيان الإماراتية - 21 تشرين الأوّل (أكتوبر) 2012'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> طعنت أطراف في المعارضة في الكويت بعدم دستورية هذا المرسوم لدى [[المحكمة الدستورية الكويتية]] التي بدورها حصّنت هذا المرسوم بحكم تاريخي صدر في [[16 يونيو]] [[2013]].<ref>[https://ift.tt/2HxQlzn "الكويت.. انتخابات تشريعية ثانية في عام والمعارضة تقاطع"]، '''موقع قناة العربية - 1 كانون الثاني (ديسمبر) 2012'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> أجريت ثلاثة انتخابات نيابية وفق هذا القانون ما بين الفترة الممتدة بين (2012-2018)، رفضت المعارضة المشاركة في اثنين منها في حين تراجعت عن قرار المقاطعة في الانتخابات النيابية الأخيرة التي أجريت في 2016 والتي على إثرها جاء انتخاب [[مجلس الأمة الكويتي 2016]].

== نص القانون ==
نصّت المادة الأولى من هذا المرسوم على: "يستبدل بنص المادة الثانية من [[قانون الأصوات الأربعة|القانون رقم 42 لسنة 2006]] المشار اليه، النص التالي: (تنتخب كل دائرة عشرة أعضاء للمجلس على أن يكون لكل ناخب حق الإدلاء بصوته لمرشح واحد في الدائرة المقيد فيها ويعتبر باطلا التصويت لاكثر من هذا العدد)".

== الهدف من القانون ==

كان الهدف من إقرار "[[قانون الأصوات الأربعة|قانون الدوائر الانتخابية الخمسة وفق نظام الأصوات الأربعة]]"، الذي انتخبت على إثره ثلاث مجالس نيابية ([[مجلس الأمة الكويتي 2008|مجلس 2008]]، [[مجلس الأمة الكويتي 2009|مجلس 2009]]، [[مجلس الأمة الكويتي (فبراير 2012)|مجلس فبراير 2012]])، معالجة سلبيّات وعيوب القوانين الانتخابية السابقة، إلا أن النتائج التي أفرزها قانون الأصوات الأربعة جاءت بمجالس نيابية متناقضة مع بعضها البعض ومتناقضة مع جزء من الشارع الكويتي. وقد جائت لتُعزّز القبليّة والطائفيَة بشكل أكبر من مثيلاتها السابقات، فتضاعف عدد النواب المحسوبين على التيارات الدينية والقبلية ما شكّل ضربة لطموحات المرأة والشباب الكويتي، فقد أفرز القانون مجالس تسيطر عليها تيارات إسلامية وسلفية معارضة متحالفة مع القبليين.<ref>[https://ift.tt/2Hy2Jzd "الدوائر الخمس عصفت بأحلام الكويتيين، وكرّست القبلية والمذهبية والمال السياسي"]، '''جريدة الجريدة الكويتية - 25 أيّار (مايو) 2008'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>[https://ift.tt/2Hy2LqP "خمس دوائر وصوت واحد.. لتحصين المرسوم"]، '''جريدة الوطن الكويتية - 3 كانون الثاني (يناير) 2013'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>"حوار مع الأمين العام لقوى المجتمع المدني الكويتي عبد الرحمن الغانم"، '''إصدار: الاتحاد العام لعمّال الكويت. العدد: 508 عام: 2011. صفحة:13-14'''.</ref> وبعدما حل مجلس (2009) الموالي للحكومة، والذي مثّلت فيه المرأة لأوّل مرة في تاريخ الكويت،<ref>[https://ift.tt/2HAqXJv "أربع نساء يدخلن البرلمان الكويتي للمرة الأولى"]، '''جريدة الاتحاد الإماراتية - 18 أيّار (مايو) 2009'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> جاء [[مجلس الأمة الكويتي (فبراير 2012)|مجلس فبراير لعام 2012]] بمثابة الشعرة التي انقطعت بين الحكومة والمعارضة، ذلك أن المعارضة كانت تسيطر على المجلس المذكور، بشكل كامل من خلال غالبية برلمانية، استطاعت من خلالها تمرير تعديلات دستورية تمس "المادة الثانية" و"المادة التاسعة والسبعين" من الدستور الكويتي، لجعله يتناسب مع ما تراه متوافقًا مع [[الشريعة الإسلامية]].<ref>[https://ift.tt/2Hy2Pa3 "هايف يعلن تعديل المادة 79 من الدستور باسم «العدالة» "]، '''جريدة الرأي الكويتية - 9 آذار (مارس) 2012'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref name="مولد تلقائيا51">[https://ift.tt/2Hy2Qe7 "أسلمة القوانين... ثانية"]، '''جريدة الرأي الكويتية - 17 تشرين الأوّل (نوفمبر) 2013'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> أدّت تلك التعديلات إلى انقسام واضح في الشارع الكويتي بين التيارات السياسية بحجة رفضها "أسلمة الدستور والقوانين" أو المساس به بما يضر [[دولة مدنية|الدولة المدنية]] و[[الحرية الفردية]] و[[حريات مدنية|الحرية الشخصية]] التي كفلها الدستور للمواطنين.<ref name="مولد تلقائيا51" /><ref>[https://ift.tt/2HviF5k "ندوة المنبر الديموقراطي الكويتي: تعديل المادة الثانية من الدستور يعني إلغاء مدنية الدولة"]، '''جريدة النهار الكويتية - 3 نيسان (أبريل) 2012'''.</ref> ليقوم أمير الكويت صباح الأحمد الصباح بدوره برفض إقرار تلك التعديلات الدستورية معلّلا تعارضها مع [[الدستور الكويتي|مواد الدستور]].<ref>[https://ift.tt/2r6tSOS "الأمير: تعديل المادة 79 لا يجوز دستورياً"]، '''جريدة الوطن الكويتية - 16 أيّار (مايو) 2012'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>

== الاعتراض على القانون ==
إثر صدور القانون هذا، طعنت أطراف من المعارضة في الكويت لدى المحكمة الدستورية في الكويت بعدم دستورية هذا المرسوم الذي جاء بموجب مبدأ [[مرسوم الضرورة|الضرورة]]. وتلت ذلك الطعن بقرار [[مجلس الأمة الكويتي (ديسمبر 2012)|مقاطعة انتخابات مجلس الأمة]] التي أجريت في ديسمبر 2012.<ref>[https://ift.tt/2HxQlzn "الكويت.. انتخابات تشريعية ثانية في عام والمعارضة تقاطع"]، '''موقع قناة العربية - 1 كانون الثاني (ديسمبر) 2012'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> وقد كان أحد أسباب عدم الاشتراك في تلك الانتخابات، أن المعارضة كانت تنتظر حكمًا في صالحها تصدره المحكمة الدستورية يقضي بعدم دستورية مرسوم الصوت الواحد وبالتالي يُحَل بموجبه مجلس الأمة المنتخب بمرسوم الصوت الواحد لتسجّل انتصارًا سياسيًا، غير أن المحكمة الدستورية في [[16 يونيو]] 2013، أصدرت حكمًا بتحصين المرسوم على غير توقّعات المعارضة.

== تحصين القانون ==
أصدرت [[المحكمة الدستورية الكويتية]] في [[16 يونيو]] 2013، حكمًا وصف بالتاريخي، حصّنت بموجب حكمها، هذا المرسوم.<ref>[http://www.alanba.com.kw/ar/kuwait-news/parliament/389576/17-06-2013-انتخابات-الصوت-الواحد-منتصف-اغسطس "تأملات في الانتخابات - سامي النصف"]، '''جريدة الأنباء الكويتية - 17 حزيران (يونيو) 2013'''.</ref> ونص حكم المحكمة الدستورية على أن "مرسوم الضرورة جاء لمعالجة سلبيّات وعيوب تهدّد وحدة الوطن ونسيجه الإجتماعي"، وجاء كذلك "تحقيقًا للمصلحة الوطنية التي تعلو فوق كل اعتبار"، و"بالتالي فلا مأخذ عليها (أي الحكومة) في هذا الأمر (أي المرسوم) من الوجهة الدستورية"، ذلك لأنّه (أي المرسوم) "ساوى بين جميع المواطنين".<ref>[https://ift.tt/2rbuNxF "الدستورية تشيد بمرسوم الضرورة: حفظ أمن الوطن ونسيجه الإجتماعي"]، '''صحيفة الآن الكويتية - 16 حزيران (يونيو) 2013'''. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>

== مجالس انتخبت وفق القانون ==
انتخبت ثلاث مجالس نيابية وفق هذا النظام، وهي كل من:
* [[مجلس الأمة الكويتي (ديسمبر 2012)]]
* [[مجلس الأمة الكويتي 2013]]
* [[مجلس الأمة الكويتي 2016]]

== المراجع ==

[[تصنيف:دساتير الدول العربية]]
[[تصنيف:سياسة الكويت]]
[[تصنيف:مجلس الأمة الكويتي]]
[[تصنيف:مجلس الوزراء الكويتي]]

https://ift.tt/2rbuOBJ

缨小蜂科

新規更新されました。 April 28, 2018 at 03:40PM
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缨小蜂科
https://ift.tt/2rbX0Fp

جين بالارد داير

新規更新されました。 April 28, 2018 at 03:37PM
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جين بالارد داير
https://ift.tt/2JBJy4n

Bjoreio

新規更新されました。 April 28, 2018 at 01:29PM
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Bjoreio
https://ift.tt/2jaY6N0

バーチャルゴリラ

新規更新されました。 April 28, 2018 at 01:16PM
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バーチャルゴリラ
https://ift.tt/2FlPkEF

意味を調べるГильом Бюзак

新規更新April 28, 2018 at 01:23PM
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Гильом Бюзак

Nicolas-a:

'''Гильом Бюзак''' ('''Guillaume Busac''') (ок. 1020—1076) — граф Суассона с 1057 (по правам жены). Возможно, какое-то время был графом Э.

Сын Гильома, первого графа Э, и его жены Лесцелины де Турвиль.

По мнению некоторых историков (David Crouch, François Neveux, Pierre Bauduin), Гильом Бюзак был старшим сыном и после смерти отца унаследовал его графство, но был лишён владений нормандским герцогом Ришаром II после того, как восстал против него (ок. 1057).
David Douglas, напротив, утверждает, что старшим сыном был Роберт.

Приблизительно в 1057 г. Гильом Бюзак прибыл ко двору французского короля Генриха I, от которого получил в жёны Аделу (Аделаиду), наследницу графства Суассон. Таким образом он по правам жены в 1057 г. стал графом Суассона и основателем династии, угасшей в 1148 г. со смертью графа Рено III.
Дети:
* Рено II (ум. 1099), граф Суассона
* Жан (ум. не ранее 1115), граф Суассона
* Манассе (ум. 1108) — епископ Камбре (1095), епископ Суассона (1103)
* дочь, жена Ива де Неля.

== Источники ==
* https://ift.tt/2r76G2L
* David Douglas, « The Earliest Norman Counts », The English Historical Review, vol. 61, no 240 (mai 1946), p. 129-156, note A.
* Elisabeth M. C. Van Houts, The Normans in Europe, Manchester University Press, 2000, p. 293.
* Pierre Bauduin, La première Normandie (Xe-XIe siècle), Caen, Presses universitaires de Caen, réimpr. 2006, p. 297.
* David Crouch, The Normans: The History of a Dynasty, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006, p. 65.
* François Neveux, A brief history of the Normans: the conquests that changed the face of Europe, Robinson, 2008, p. 123.
* Warren Brown, Piotr Górecki, Conflict in Medieval Europe: Changing Perspectives on Society and Culture, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2003, p. 145.

https://ift.tt/2HyJwgU

意味を調べるEBCDIC 040

新規更新April 28, 2018 at 11:44AM
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EBCDIC 040

Alexlatham96:

IBM code page 40 (CCSID 40) is an [[EBCDIC code pages|EBCDIC code page]] with full [[ASCII]] used in IBM [[Mainframe computer|mainframe]]s in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref></ref>

==Codepage layout==


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==References==

[[Category:EBCDIC code pages]]

https://ift.tt/2r6qfZn

意味を調べる晚疫病

新規更新April 28, 2018 at 11:44AM
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晚疫病

Hello903hello：请求快速删除（CSD A6）

Phytophthora infestans is an oomycete or water mold, a microorganism which causes the serious potato and tomato disease known as late blight or potato blight. (Early blight, caused by Alternaria solani, is also often called "potato blight".) Late blight was a major culprit in the 1840s European, the 1845 Irish, and the 1846 Highland potato famines. The organism can also infect some other members of the Solanaceae.[1][2][3] The pathogen is favored by moist, cool environments: sporulation is optimal at 12–18 °C in water-saturated or nearly saturated environments, and zoospore production is favored at temperatures below 15 °C. Lesion growth rates are typically optimal at a slightly warmer temperature range of 20 to 24 °C.[4]

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Life cycle, signs and symptoms
3 Genetics
4 Origin and diversity of P. infestans
5 Disease management
5.1 Resistant plants
5.2 Reducing inoculum
5.3 Environmental conditions
5.4 Use of fungicides
5.5 Control of tuber blight
6 Historical impact
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Etymology
The genus name Phytophthora comes from the Greek φυτό-(phyto), meaning : "plant" - plus the Greek φθορά (phthora), meaning : "decay, ruin, perish". The species name infestans is the present participle of the Latin verb infestare, meaning : "attacking, destroying", from which we get the word "to infest".

Life cycle, signs and symptoms

Ripe tomato infected with blight.

Tomato plant infected with blight.

Unripe tomatoes infected with blight.

Potatoes infected with late blight are shrunken on the outside, corky and rotted inside.

Life Cycle of Phytophthora infestans on potato
The asexual life cycle of Phytophthora infestans is characterized by alternating phases of hyphal growth, sporulation, sporangia germination (either through zoospore release or direct germination, i.e. germ tube emergence from the sporangium), and the re-establishment of hyphal growth.[5] There is also a sexual cycle, which occurs when isolates of opposite mating type (A1 and A2) meet. Hormonal communication triggers the formation of the sexual spores, called oospores.[6] The different types of spores play major roles in the dissemination and survival of P. infestans. Sporangia are spread by wind or water and enable the movement of P. infestans between different host plants. The zoospores released from sporangia are biflagellated and chemotactic, allowing further movement of P. infestans on water films found on leaves or soils. Both sporangia and zoospores are short-lived, in contrast to oospores which can persist in a viable form for many years.

The color of potato sign is white. People can observe phytophthora infestans produces sporangia and sporangiophores on the surface of potato stems and leaves.[7] These sporangia and sporangiophores are always appear on the lower surface of the foliage. As for tuber blight, the white mycelium often on the tubers surface.[8]

Under ideal conditions, the life cycle can be completed on potato or tomato foliage in about five days.[5] Sporangia develop on the leaves, spreading through the crop when temperatures are above 10 °C (50 °F) and humidity is over 75–80% for 2 days or more. Rain can wash spores into the soil where they infect young tubers, and the spores can also travel long distances on the wind. The early stages of blight are easily missed. Symptoms include the appearance of dark blotches on leaf tips and plant stems. White mold will appear under the leaves in humid conditions and the whole plant may quickly collapse. Infected tubers develop grey or dark patches that are reddish brown beneath the skin, and quickly decay to a foul-smelling mush caused by the infestation of secondary soft bacterial rots. Seemingly healthy tubers may rot later when in store.

P. infestans survives poorly in nature apart from its plant hosts. Under most conditions, the hyphae and asexual sporangia can survive for only brief periods in plant debris or soil, and are generally killed off during frosts or very warm weather. The exceptions involve oospores, and hyphae present within tubers. The persistence of viable pathogen within tubers, such as those that are left in the ground after the previous year's harvest or left in cull piles is a major problem in disease management. In particular, volunteer plants sprouting from infected tubers are thought to be a major source of inoculum at the start of a growing season.[9] This can have devastating effects by destroying entire crops.

Genetics
P. infestans is diploid, with about 11-13 chromosomes, and in 2009 scientists completed the sequencing of its genome. The genome was found to be considerably larger (240 Mbp) than that of most other Phytophthora species whose genomes have been sequenced; Phytophthora sojae has a 95 Mbp genome and Phytophthora ramorum had a 65 Mbp genome. About 18,000 genes were detected within the P. infestans genome. It also contained a diverse variety of transposons and many gene families encoding for effector proteins that are involved in causing pathogenicity. These proteins are split into two main groups depending on whether they are produced by the water mould in the symplast (inside plant cells) or in the apoplast (between plant cells). Proteins produced in the symplast included RXLR proteins, which contain an arginine-X-leucine-arginine (where X can be any amino acid) sequence at the amino terminus of the protein. Some RXLR proteins are avirulence proteins, meaning that they can be detected by the plant and lead to a hypersensitive response which restricts the growth of the pathogen. P. infestans was found to encode around 60% more of these proteins than most other Phytophthora species. Those found in the apoplast include hydrolytic enzymes such as proteases, lipases and glycosylases that act to degrade plant tissue, enzyme inhibitors to protect against host defence enzymes and necrotizing toxins. Overall the genome was found to have an extremely high repeat content (around 74%) and to have an unusual gene distribution in that some areas contain many genes whereas others contain very few.[1][10]

Origin and diversity of P. infestans

Historical model of Phytophthora infestans, Botanical Museum Greifswald

Historical model of a potato leaf with Phytophthora infestans, Botanical Museum Greifswald
The highlands of central Mexico are considered by many to be the center of origin of P. infestans, although others have proposed its origin to be in the Andes, which is also the origin of potatoes.[11][12] A recent study evaluated these two alternate hypotheses and found conclusive support for central Mexico being the center of origin.[13] Support for Mexico comes from multiple observations including the fact that populations are genetically most diverse in Mexico, late blight is observed in native tuber-bearing Solanum species, populations of the pathogen are in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the two mating types occur in a 1:1 ratio, and detailed phylogeographic and evolutionary studies.[12][13][14][15][16][17][18] Furthermore, the closest relatives of P. infestans, namely P. mirabilis and P. ipomoeae are endemic to central Mexico.[19] On the other hand, the only close relative found in South America, namely P. andina, is a hybrid that does not share a single common ancestor with P. infestans. Finally, populations of P. infestans in South America lack genetic diversity and are clonal.[13][20][21]

Migrations from Mexico to North America or Europe have occurred several times throughout history, probably linked to the movement of tubers.[22][23] Until the 1970s, the A2 mating type was restricted to Mexico, but now in many regions of the world both A1 and A2 isolates can be found in the same region.[24] The co-occurrence of the two mating types is significant due to the possibility of sexual recombination and formation of oospores, which can survive the winter. Only in Mexico and Scandinavia, however, is oospore formation thought to play a role in overwintering.[12][25] In other parts of Europe, increasing genetic diversity has been observed as a consequence of sexual reproduction[26] This is notable since different forms of P. infestans vary in their aggressiveness on potato or tomato, in sporulation rate, and sensitivity to fungicides.[27] Variation in such traits also occurs in North America, however importation of new genotypes from Mexico appears to be the predominant cause of genetic diversity, as opposed to sexual recombination within potato or tomato fields. Many of the strains that appeared outside of Mexico since the 1980s have been more aggressive, leading to increased crop losses.[28] Some of the differences between strains may be related to variation in the RXLR effectors that are present.

Disease management
P. infestans is still a difficult disease to control.[3] There are many chemical options in agriculture for the control of both damage to the foliage and infections of the tuber.[29] A few of the most common foliar-applied fungicides are Ridomil, a Gavel/SuperTin tank mix, and Previcur Flex. All of the aforementioned fungicides need to be tank mixed with a broad-spectrum fungicide such as mancozeb or chlorothalonil not just for resistance management but also because the potato plants will be attacked by other pathogens at the same time.

If adequate field scouting occurs and late blight is found soon after disease development, localized patches of potato plants can be killed with a desiccant (e.g. paraquat) through the use of a backpack sprayer. This management technique can be thought of as a field-scale hypersensitive response similar to what occurs in some plant-viral interactions whereby cells surrounding the initial point of infection are killed in order to prevent proliferation of the pathogen.

If infected tubers make it into the storage bin, there's a very high risk to the storage life of that bin. Once in storage, there isn't much that can be done besides emptying the parts of the bin that contain tubers infected with Phytophthora infestans. To increase the probability of successfully storing potatoes from a field where late blight was known to occur during the growing season, some products can be applied just prior to entering storage (e.g. Phostrol). The problem with products being sprayed on tubers just prior to storage is that you are applying these products in an aqueous solution and high moisture carries a high risk of tuber breakdown due to wide range of pathogens.

Around the world the disease causes around $6 billion of damage to crops each year.[1][2]

Resistant plants

Potatoes after exposure to Phytophthora infestans. The normal potatoes have blight but the cisgenic potatoes are healthy.
Breeding for resistance, particularly in potato, has had limited success in part due to difficulties in crossing cultivated potato to its wild relatives, which are the source of potential resistance genes. In addition, most resistance genes only work against a subset of P. infestans isolates, since effective plant disease resistance only results when the pathogen expresses a RXLR effector gene that matches the corresponding plant resistance (R) gene; effector-R gene interactions trigger a range of plant defenses, such as the production of compounds toxic to the pathogen.

Potato and tomato varieties vary in their susceptibility to blight.[26] Most early varieties are very vulnerable; they should be planted early so that the crop matures before blight starts (usually in July in the Northern Hemisphere). Many old crop varieties, such as King Edward potato are also very susceptible but are grown because they are wanted commercially. Maincrop varieties which are very slow to develop blight include Cara, Stirling, Teena, Torridon, Remarka, and Romano. Some so-called resistant varieties can resist some strains of blight and not others, so their performance may vary depending on which are around.[26] These crops have had polygenic resistance bred into them, and are known as "field resistant". New varieties such as Sarpo Mira and Sarpo Axona show great resistance to blight even in areas of heavy infestation. Defender is an American cultivar whose parentage includes Ranger Russet and Polish potatoes resistant to late blight. It is a long white-skinned cultivar with both foliar and tuber resistance to late blight. Defender was released in 2004.[30]

Genetic engineering may also provide options for generating resistance cultivars. A resistance gene effective against most known strains of blight has been identified from a wild relative of the potato, Solanum bulbocastanum, and introduced by genetic engineering into cultivated varieties of potato.[31] This is an example of cisgenic genetic engineering.[32]

Reducing inoculum
Blight can be controlled by limiting the source of inoculum.[26] Only good-quality seed potatoes and tomatoes obtained from certified suppliers should be planted. Often discarded potatoes from the previous season and self-sown tubers can act as sources of inoculum.[33]

Compost, soil or potting medium can be heat-treated to kill oomycetes such as Phytophthora infestans. The recommended sterilisation temperature for oomycetes is 120 °F (49 °C) for 30 minutes.[34][35]

Environmental conditions
There are several environmental conditions that are conducive to P. infestans. An example of such took place in the United States during the 2009 growing season. As colder than average for the season and with greater than average rainfall, there was a major infestation of tomato plants, specifically in the eastern states.[36] By using weather forecasting systems, such as BLITECAST, if the following conditions occur as the canopy of the crop closes, then the use of fungicides is recommended to prevent an epidemic.[37]

A Beaumont Period is a period of 48 consecutive hours, in at least 46 of which the hourly readings of temperature and relative humidity at a given place have not been less than 10 °C (50 °F) and 75%, respectively.[38][39]
A Smith Period is at least two consecutive days where min temperature is 10 °C (50 °F) or above and on each day at least 11 hours when the relative humidity is greater than 90%.
The Beaumont and Smith periods have traditionally been used by growers in the United Kingdom, with different criteria developed by growers in other regions.[39] The Smith period has been the preferred system used in the UK since its introduction in the 1970s.[40]

Based on these conditions and other factors, several tools have been developed to help growers manage the disease and plan fungicide applications. Often these are deployed as part of Decision Support Systems accessible through web sites or smart phones.

Use of fungicides

Spraying in a potato field for prevention of potato blight in Nottinghamshire, England.
Fungicides for the control of potato blight are normally only used in a preventative manner, optionally in conjunction with disease forecasting. In susceptible varieties, sometimes fungicide applications may be needed weekly. An early spray is most effective. The choice of fungicide can depend on the nature of local strains of P. infestans. Metalaxyl is a fungicide that was marketed for use against P. infestans, but suffered serious resistance issues when used on its own. In some regions of the world during the 1980s and 1990s, most strains of P. infestans became resistant to metalaxyl, but in subsequent years many populations shifted back to sensitivity. To reduce the occurrence of resistance, it is strongly advised to use single-target fungicides such as metalaxyl along with carbamate compounds. A combination of other compounds are recommended for managing metalaxyl-resistant strains. These include mandipropamid, chlorothalonil, fluazinam, triphenytin, mancozeb and others. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency has approved oxathiapiprolin for use against late blight.[41]

In the past, copper sulfate solution (called 'bluestone') was used to combat potato blight. Copper pesticides remain in use on organic crops, both in the form of copper hydroxide and copper sulfate. Given the dangers of copper toxicity, other organic control options that have been shown to be effective include horticultural oils, phosphorous acids, and rhamnolipid biosurfactants, while sprays containing "beneficial" microbes such as Bacillus subtilis or compounds that encourage the plant to produce defensive chemicals (such as knotweed extract) have not performed as well.[42]

Control of tuber blight
Ridging is often used to reduce tuber contamination by blight. This normally involves piling soil or mulch around the stems of the potato blight meaning the pathogen has farther to travel to get to the tuber.[43] Another approach is to destroy the canopy around five weeks before harvest, using a contact herbicide or sulfuric acid to burn off the foliage. Eliminating infected foliage reduces the likelihood of tuber infection.

Historical impact

Suggested paths of migration and diversification of P. infestans lineages HERB-1 and US-1
The effects of Phytophthora infestans in Ireland in 1845–52 were one of the factors which caused over one million to starve to death and forced another two million to emigrate from affected countries. Most commonly referenced is the Great Irish Famine, during the late 1840s. The first recorded instances of the disease were in the United States, in Philadelphia and New York City in early 1843. Winds then spread the spores, and in 1845 it was found from Illinois to Nova Scotia, and from Virginia to Ontario. It crossed the Atlantic Ocean with a shipment of seed potatoes for Belgian farmers in 1845.[44] All of the potato-growing countries in Europe were affected, but the potato blight hit Ireland the hardest. Implicated in Ireland's fate was the island's disproportionate dependency on a single variety of potato, the Irish Lumper. The lack of genetic variability created a susceptible host population for the organism.[45]

During the First World War, all of the copper in Germany was used for shell casings and electric wire and therefore none was available for making copper sulfate to spray potatoes. A major late blight outbreak on potato in Germany therefore went untreated, and the resulting scarcity of potatoes led to the deaths of 700,000 German civilians from starvation.[46]

France, Canada, the United States, and the Soviet Union researched P. infestans as a biological weapon in the 1940s and 1950s.[47] Potato blight was one of more than 17 agents that the United States researched as potential biological weapons before the nation suspended its biological weapons program.[48] Whether a weapon based on the pathogen would be effective is questionable, due to the difficulties in delivering viable pathogen to an enemy's fields, and the role of uncontrollable environmental factors in spreading the disease.

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Further reading
Chen, S.; Borza, T.; Byun, B.; Coffin, R.; Coffin, J.; Peters, R. (2017), "DNA Markers for Selection of Late Blight Resistant Potato Breeding Lines", American Journal of Plant Sciences, 8 (6): 1197, doi:10.1007/s11540-009-9136-3
Erwin, Donald C.; Ribeiro, Olaf K. (1996), Phytophthora Diseases Worldwide, St. Paul, MN: American Phytopathological Society Press, ISBN 0-89054-212-0
Lucas, J. A.; Shattock, R. C.; Shaw, D. S.; et al., eds. (1991), Phytophthora, British Mycological Society Symposia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-40080-5
Haverkort, A. J.; Boonekamp, P. M; Hutten, R.; Jacobsen, E; Lotz, L.; Kessel, G.; Van der Vossen, E.; et al. (2008), "Societal costs of late blight in potato and prospects of durable resistance through cisgenic modification", Potato Research, 51 (1): 47–57, doi:10.1007/s11540-008-9089-y
Grünwald, N. J.; Flier, W. G. (2005). "The Biology of Phytophthora infestans at Its Center of Origin". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 43: 171–90. doi:10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.135906. PMID 16078881.
Govers, Francine; Gijzens, Mark (2006), "Phytophthora Genomics: The Plant-Destroyer's Genome Decoded", Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions, 19 (12): 1295–1301, doi:10.1094/MPMI-19-1295, PMID 17153913
Nowicki, Marcin; et al. (17 August 2011), "Potato and tomato late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans: An overview of pathology and resistance breeding", Plant Disease, 96: 4–17, doi:10.1094/PDIS-05-11-0458
Bruhn, J. A.; Fry, W. E. (17 November 1980), "Analysis of potato late blight epidemiology by simulation modeling" (PDF), Phytopathology, 71 (6): 612–616, doi:10.1094/phyto-71-612
Yoshida, Kentaro; et al. (2013). "Rise and fall of the Phytophthora infestans lineage that triggered the Irish potato famine". ELife. 2 (in press): e00731. arXiv:1305.4206 Freely accessible. doi:10.7554/elife.00731. PMC 3667578 Freely accessible. PMID 23741619.
Goss, E. M.; Tabima, J. F.; Cooke, D. E. L.; Restrepo, S.; Fry, W. E.; Forbes, G. A.; Fieland, V. J.; Cardenas, M.; Grünwald, N. J. (2014). "The Irish potato famine pathogen Phytophthora infestans originated in central Mexico rather than the Andes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (24): 8791–96. doi:10.1073/pnas.1401884111. PMC 4066499 Freely accessible. PMID 24889615.
Martin, Michael D.; et al. (2013). "Reconstructing genome evolution in historic samples of the Irish potato famine pathogen". Nature Communications. 4: 2172. doi:10.1038/ncomms3172. PMC 3759036 Freely accessible. PMID 23863894.
Martin, Michael D.; et al. (2016). "Genomic characterization of a South American Phytophthora hybrid mandates reassessment of the geographic origins of Phytophthora infestans". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 33 (2): 478–91. doi:10.1093/molbev/msv241. PMC 4866541 Freely accessible. PMID 26576850.
External links
USAblight A National Web Portal on Late Blight
International Potato Center
Online Phytophtora bibliography
Phytophthora Functional Genomics Database
Phytophthora infestans Mitochondrial Genome Project
USDA-BARC Phytophthora infestans page
Phytophthora overview, detailed developmental stages, life cycle image at MetaPathogen
Organic Alternatives for Late Blight Control in Potatoes, from ATTRA
Google Map of Tomato Potato Blight Daily Risk across NE USA
Species Profile – Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for Late Blight.
The American Phytopathological Society
PlantVillage entry on Late Blight

https://ift.tt/2r5qTWR

意味を調べるEBCDIC 039

新規更新April 28, 2018 at 11:41AM
【外部リンク】

EBCDIC 039

Alexlatham96:

IBM code page 39 (CCSID 39) is an [[EBCDIC code pages|EBCDIC code page]] with full [[ASCII]] used in IBM [[Mainframe computer|mainframe]]s in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref></ref>

==Codepage layout==


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==References==

[[Category:EBCDIC code pages]]

https://ift.tt/2r5kye1

Lista di asteroidi (483001-484000)

新規更新されました。 April 28, 2018 at 09:23AM
【外部リンク】
Lista di asteroidi (483001-484000)
https://ift.tt/2r5tjFU

葡萄酒的健康影响

新規更新されました。 April 28, 2018 at 05:58AM
【外部リンク】
葡萄酒的健康影响
https://ift.tt/2Jz2X5S

Доманский, Валерий Иванович

新規更新されました。 April 28, 2018 at 03:09AM
【外部リンク】
Доманский, Валерий Иванович
https://ift.tt/2HV9VFe

Beatles Ashram

新規更新されました。 April 28, 2018 at 03:05AM
【外部リンク】
Beatles Ashram
https://ift.tt/2r4RX8C

Château de Toucy

新規更新されました。 April 28, 2018 at 02:57AM
【外部リンク】
Château de Toucy
https://ift.tt/2Hxqo30

2018年4月27日金曜日

意味を調べるカンガバ

新規更新April 27, 2018 at 06:52PM
【外部リンク】

カンガバ

ねをなふみそね: ページ「Kangaba」の翻訳により作成

[[ファイル:Entrance_to_Kangaba.jpg|右|サムネイル|町の入口]]
'''カンガバ'''（Kangaba）は、[[マリ共和国]][[クリコロ州]][[カンガバ圏|カンガバ地域圏]][[ベンカジ・コミューン]]の中心となる町である。

町の名前の由来は、[[メッカ]]の[[カアバ]]（アラビア語で立方体を意味する）が[[マリンケ語]]風に訛ったものである。[[西アフリカ]]の歴史的な地方区分「[[マンデ]]」は、このカンガバの町を中心とした地方である。マンデは[[マリ帝国]]揺籃の地ともなった。カンガバの町は現在のマリ共和国と[[ギニア共和国]]の国境から50キロメートル離れたところに位置している。

== カンガバの聖なる小屋 ==
カンガバにあるカマ・ボロン（''Kama Bolon''）という小屋が聖なる小屋として崇められており、小屋の[[屋根]]が7年ごとに葺きかえられている。この小屋では、ケラ（Kéla）という隣の村に住むジャバテ家（Diabaté）の[[グリオ]]により、[[創世神話]]やケイタ家の事跡を語り歌う[[例大祭]]が行われる。カマ・ボロンは1653年に建てられた。

2011年3月16日、マリ政府は閣議で、7年ごとに行われるカマ・ボロンの屋根の葺き替えを国家的文化遺産に分類する暫定[[デクレ]]を採択した<ref></ref>。

== クルカンの原 ==
1236年に[[スンジャタ・ケイタ]]が[[クルカン・フカ憲章]]を宣言した場所、クルカン・フカ（Kurukan Fuka、クルカンの原）は、このカンガバであったとみなされている。クルカン・フカ憲章は、最初期の[[人権宣言|人権の普遍的な宣言]]であり、マリ帝国のいしずえになった。

== 出典 ==

https://ift.tt/2HvicjI

意味を調べるBeelban Parish, New South Wales

新規更新April 27, 2018 at 10:32AM
【外部リンク】

Beelban Parish, New South Wales

D A R C 12345: cre8stub1

[[file:Oxley NSW.PNG|thumb|right|[[Oxley County]] NSW.]][[File:Nevertire Town Entry Sign.JPG|thumb|right|Nevertire Town Entry]]
'''Beelban Parish (Oxley County), New South Wales''' is a [[rural locality]] of [[Bogan Shire]] and a [[Lands administrative divisions of Australia|civil parish]] of [[Oxley County, New South Wales]],<ref>Robert McLean, The New atlas of Australia : the complete work containing over one hundred maps and full descriptive geography of [[New South Wales]], [[Victoria, Austria|Victoria]], [[Queensland]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]], together with numerous illustrations and copious indices ([[Sydney, Australia|Sydney]] :[[John Sands (printer)|John Sands]], [1886) Map 14.</ref> a [[Cadastral divisions of New South Wales]].<ref></ref>

The [[civil parish|parish]] is on the [[Main Western railway line, New South Wales|Main Western railway line]] just [[east]] of [[Nyngan]].<ref>[https://ift.tt/2FiNTqC County of Oxley], New South Wales. Department of Lands 1922 ]].</ref>

The only town of the parish is the [[Railway junction]] of [[Nevertire, New South Wales]], and the economy of the parish is based on broad acre [[agriculture]] of [[sheep]], [[cattle]] and [[wheat]].

==References==
[[Category:Localities in New South Wales]]

[[Category:Geography of New South Wales]]
[[Category:Central West (New South Wales)]]

https://ift.tt/2vQb0ZR

意味を調べるOrientação do papel higiênico

新規更新April 27, 2018 at 09:02AM
【外部リンク】

Orientação do papel higiênico

Lustmoon: ajustando datas, traduzindo nome/parâmetro nas citações, outros ajustes

[[Papel higiênico]] quando usado com um suporte de rolo de papel higiênico com um eixo horizontal paralelo ao chão e também paralelo à parede tem duas orientações possíveis: o papel higiênico pode ter a rotação externa ou interna do rolo em relação à parede; se perpendicular à parede, as duas orientações estão à direita ou à esquerda. A escolha é em grande parte uma questão de preferência pessoal, ditada pelo hábito. Em pesquisas com consumidores dos [[Estados Unidos|EUA]] e especialistas em banho e cozinha, 60% a 70% dos entrevistados preferem a orientação ''externa''.

Algumas pessoas têm opiniões fortes sobre o assunto; A colunista de aconselhamento [[Ann Landers]] disse que o assunto foi o mais respondido (15.000 cartas em 1986) e controverso na história da sua coluna. Defensores de qualquer posição citam vantagens que vão desde a [[estética]], [[hospitalidade]] e [[limpeza]] até a conservação de papel, a facilidade de destacar os quadrados individuais e a compatibilidade com a definição de detalhes, como [[Veículo recreativo|veículos recreativos]] ou [[Animal de estimação|animais de estimação]]. Alguns escritores propuseram conexões com idade, sexo ou filosofia política, e evidências de pesquisas mostraram uma correlação com o status socioeconômico.

As soluções vão desde compromissos, até o uso de distribuidores separados ou banheiros separados, ou simplesmente ignoram completamente a questão. É defendido um plano sob o qual seu país irá padronizar em uma única orientação forçada, e pelo menos um inventor espera popularizar um novo tipo de porta-rolos que gira de uma orientação para outra.

== Contexto e relevância ==
No artigo "Política do banheiro: introduzindo os estudantes no pensamento sociológico de baixo para cima", O professor de [[sociologia]] do Eastern Institute of Technology, Edgar Alan Burns, descreve algumas razões pelas quais a política do papel higiênico é digna de ser examinada. No primeiro dia do curso introdutório de Burns em sociologia, ele pergunta a seus alunos: "Em que sentido você acha que um rolo de papel higiênico deve ser pendurado?" Nos cinquenta minutos seguintes, os estudantes examinam por que escolheram suas respostas, explorando a [[Constructo social|construção social]] de "regras e práticas sobre as quais eles nunca pensaram conscientemente antes".

A atividade de Burns foi adotada por um curso de [[psicologia social]] na [[Universidade de Notre Dame]], onde é usado para ilustrar os princípios do clássico de 1966 de Berger e Luckmann, ''The Social Construction of Reality''. Tópicos cotidianos semelhantes que têm sido usados para despertar a imaginação sociológica incluem jogos de [[jogo da velha]], violações do espaço pessoal, as regras do caminhar e a etiqueta de quais [[mictório]]s os homens escolhem nos [[Banheiro público|banheiros públicos]].

Christopher Peterson, professor de psicologia da [[Universidade de Michigan]], classifica a escolha da orientação do papel higiênico sob "gostos, preferências e interesses" em oposição a valores ou "atitudes, características, normas e necessidades". Outros interesses pessoais incluem [[refrigerante]] favorito ou time de [[Basebol|beisebol]]. Os interesses são uma parte importante da identidade; espera-se e prefere-se que pessoas diferentes tenham interesses diferentes, o que serve ao "senso de singularidade". Diferenças nos interesses geralmente levam, no máximo, a provocações e desrespeito gentil. Para a maioria das pessoas, interesses não causam as divisões sérias causadas por conflitos de valores; uma possível exceção é o que Peterson chama de "o pessoal da 'ganhe a vida' entre nós" que eleva os interesses a questões morais.

Morton Ann Gernsbacher, professor de [[psicologia]] da [[Universidade do Wisconsin-Madison|Universidade de Wisconsin-Madison]], compara a orientação do papel higiênico com a orientação dos [[talher]]es em uma [[máquina de lavar louça]], a escolha de qual gaveta em uma [[cômoda]] para colocar as meias e a ordem de lavar o cabelo e ensaboar o corpo no chuveiro. Em cada escolha, há uma solução prototípica escolhida pela maioria, e é tentador oferecer explicações simplistas de como a minoria deve ser diferente. Ela adverte que experimentos de neuroimagem - que a partir de 2007 estavam começando a investigar comportamentos de rotação mental e expressões faciais para fazer compras e fazer [[cócegas]] - devem se esforçar para evitar tais preconceitos e estereótipos culturais.

Em seu livro ''Conversational Capital'', Bertrand Cesvet oferece a colocação de papel higiênico como um exemplo de comportamento ritualizado - uma das maneiras pelas quais designers e profissionais de marketing podem criar uma experiência memorável em torno de um produto que leva ao impulso boca-a-boca. Os outros exemplos de Cesvet incluem sacudir uma caixa de Tic Tacs e dissecar biscoitos [[Oreo]].

O apresentador Jim Bohannon, que certa vez passou uma hora na orientação de papel higiênico, explica que tais questões são boas para o rádio: "É um meio interativo, um certo tipo de choque, não precisa ser um confronto violento, mas pelo menos um desacordo certamente estaria no topo da lista. Tem que ser algo de interesse geral ".

== Argumentos para externa ou interna ==
[[Ficheiro:Toilet_paper_in_Hotel_Monasterio.jpg|miniaturadaimagem|Papel higiênico dobrado e selado com tampa, Hotel Monasterio, 2009]]
[[Ficheiro:ToiletPaper_Boo_WrongWay.jpg|miniaturadaimagem|Papel na orientação ''interna'' com imagens e texto invertidos]]
As principais razões dadas pelas pessoas para explicar porque penduram o papel higiênico de uma determinada maneira são a facilidade de agarrar e o hábito. Algumas vantagens específicas citadas para cada orientação incluem:

* ''Externa'' reduz o risco de encostar acidentalmente na [[parede]] ou o gabinete, potencialmente transferindo sujeira e germes.
* ''Externa'' facilita a localização visual e a compreensão da extremidade solta.
* ''Externa'' dá a [[Hotel|hotéis]], [[Cruzeiro (viagem)|navios de cruzeiro]], edifícios de escritórios, locais públicos e proprietários com casas de banho dos hóspedes a opção de dobrar a última folha para mostrar que o quarto foi limpo.
* ''Externa'' é geralmente a direção pretendida da visualização para a marca do fabricante, então papel higiênico padronizado fica melhor assim.
* ''Interna'' fornece uma aparência mais organizada, em que a extremidade solta pode ser mais escondida da vista.
* ''Interna'' reduz o risco de que uma [[criança]] ou um animal doméstico, como um [[cão]] ou [[gato]], desenrole completamente o papel higiênico quando bater no rolo.
* ''Interna'' em um veículo recreativo pode reduzir o desenrolamento durante a condução.

Os partidários alegam que cada método torna mais fácil rasgar o papel higiênico em um limite de folha perfurada, dependendo da direção de puxar e do uso de um ponteiro de segundos para estabilizar o rolo.(Um viajante dos EUA para a China em 1991 observou uma configuração diferente: papel não perfurado com um cortador de metal acima do rolo, o que obriga a direção ''externa''.)

Não está claro se uma orientação é mais econômica que a outra. O ''Centralian Advocate'' atribui uma alegação de que o ''externo'' economiza papel.

No campo acadêmico de avaliação, Michael Scriven escreve que a questão da maneira correta de inserir papel higiênico é um "teste de aptidão de um item" para medir as habilidades de avaliação de alguém. Essas habilidades incluem a atitude avaliativa, análise lógica prática, empatia, ensino e ser um estudo rápido. Para provar a competência de alguém, pode-se obter a "resposta certa" ou provar que o teste é ou não culturalmente tendencioso.

=== Preâmbulo ===
Em seu livro de 2006, ''Why Not?'', Barry Nalebuff e Ian Ayres escrevem que o debate sobre o papel higiênico é um debate sobre a [[simetria]]. Tomando uma situação aproximadamente simétrica e invertendo-a, pode-se chegar às vezes a uma nova solução para um problema com suas próprias vantagens surpreendentes.

Há uma simetria de reflexão entre os lados esquerdo e direito do rolo, portanto, se ele gira no sentido horário ou anti-horário é ambíguo; depende do ponto de vista. As simetrias para cima/baixo e frente/trás são quebradas pela força da [[gravidade]] e os locais da parede e do usuário, para que se possa distinguir entre duas orientações:

* ''Externa'': a extremidade fica pendurada na parede e dispensa a parte superior do rolo quando puxada.
* ''Interna'': a extremidade fica pendurada ao lado da parede e dispensa sob a parte de baixo do rolo.

== Preferências ==
[[Ficheiro:Multi-orientable_toilet_paper_holder.jpg|direita|miniaturadaimagem|Suporte de papel higiênico multi-orientável]]
[[Ficheiro:Zijdezacht_en_schuurpapier.JPG|miniaturadaimagem|Outra solução: dois porta-papéis, mesmo com papel higiênico diferente.]]

=== Resultados da pesquisa ===
A pergunta "Você prefere que o papel higiênico se desenrole sobre ou sob o rolo?" é apresentado na capa do livro de Barry Sinrod e Mel Poretz de 1989, ''The First Really Important Survey of American Habits''. O resultado geral: 68 por cento escolheram sobre. Sinrod explicou: "Para mim, a essência do livro é a questão do papel higiênico ... ou as pessoas não se importam, ou se importam tanto que praticamente causam lesões corporais umas às outras." Poretz observou: "A questão do papel higiênico estimula as pessoas quase como o gosto da Miller Lite - um ótimo/menos comercial".

No livro de Bernice Kanner, de 1995, ''Are You Normal?'', 53% dos entrevistados preferem orientação externa, enquanto "um quarto" prefere interna e 8% não sabem ou não se importam.

''Sitting Pretty: The History of the Toilet'', uma exposição itinerante que percorre museus canadenses, pede aos visitantes que registrem sua direção de rolagem preferida. Quando a exposição chegou a Huntsville, [[Ontário]], em junho de 2001, 13.000 visitantes haviam participado da pesquisa, com 67% preferindo orientação externa. No Museu Saint Boniface, em [[Winnipeg]], em fevereiro de 2005, uma máquina de votação registrou 5.831 ''externa'' versus 5.679 ''interna'', ou 51% ''externa''. O diretor de Saint Boniface observou: "Acho que houve alguma trapaça, no entanto."

A Georgia-Pacific encomendou uma pesquisa sobre os hábitos de banheiro dos americanos em 1993 para lançar sua nova marca Quilted Northern, e mais pesquisas foram seguidas:

* ''1993 Practices and Preferences of Toilet Paper Users'': 73% de um total de 1.200 entrevistados preferem ''externa''. O comunicado de imprensa afirma: "Uma pesquisa inédita resolveu, de uma vez por todas, o grande debate sobre papel higiênico".
* ''1994 Toilet Paper Report'': 59% ''externa'', de 1.000 entrevistados; realizado pela KRC Research and Consulting
* ''1995 Bathroom Tissue Report'': 59% ''externa'' e 29% ''interna'', de 1.000 entrevistados; realizado pela KRC Research and Consulting
* ''2001 Bathroom Confidential'': 63% de um total de 1.001 entrevistados preferem ''externa''; conduzido pela Impulse Research
* ''2004 Bathroom Confidential'': 72% ''externa''

Em 1993, a American Standard Brands conduziu uma pesquisa com "designers, contratados, distribuidores, distribuidores e outros representantes de banheiros e cozinhas". no Show/Conferência da Indústria de Cozinha/Banheiro, em [[Atlanta]]. A pergunta: "Qual é a maneira correta e única de pendurar o papel higiênico - interna ou externa?" ''Externa'' ganhou 59% dos votos, 1.826 para 1.256. A porta-voz da American Standard, Nora Monroe, observou: "O banheiro é um lugar territorial. Você ficaria surpreso com quantas pessoas têm opiniões definidas sobre esse assunto". Em 2008, a American Standard encomendou a Pesquisa de Hábitos de Banheiro de 2008, um formato mais tradicional conduzido pela Opinion Research Corporation com 1.001 entrevistados. Desta vez, "três quartos" responderam ''externa''.

Em 1995, uma pesquisa realizada pela "Scottish Paper of Freshness Knowledge", da Scott Paper Company, teve "a maioria dos americanos com mais de 50 anos" preferindo ''externa''. Em outra pesquisa da Cottonelle em 1999, 68% dos entrevistados preferiram ''externa'' de 25% ''interna''. A colunista Bonnie Henry hipotetiza as outras: "Enquanto isso, 7% - sem dúvida entediado além do que se acreditava a esse ponto pelo questionamento superficial - haviam caído em um profundo e irreversível coma".

Em 27 de janeiro de 2010, o 100º aniversário da morte de Thomas Crapper, Cottonelle lançou uma campanha publicitária "Grande Debate", convidando os consumidores americanos a votarem sua preferência em um site da Kimberly-Clark. O resultado foi anunciado durante o [[Oscar 2010|82º Oscar]]: 72% votaram ''externa''. Em uma pesquisa preliminar mais tradicional com 1.000 americanos, Cottonelle descobriu que "''externas''" são mais prováveis do que "''internas''" para notar a direção de um rolo (74%), ficar incomodado quando a direção está incorreta (24%) e ter virado a direção na casa de um amigo (27%).

Além da orientação, os fabricantes de papel higiênico e os autores de pesquisas estudaram outras práticas privadas em torno do papel higiênico: quanto é usado; se é arrancado com uma mão ou duas; se é arrancado da direita para a esquerda ou da esquerda para a direita; e se está amassado ou dobrado antes de usar.

=== Temas ===

==== Sexo e idade ====
Poretz e Sinrod quebram os resultados de sua pesquisa de 1989 por sexo e idade. Estas são as porcentagens de respondentes que rolam seu papel na orientação ''externa'':
{| class="wikitable"
!Idade/
Sexo
! style="width:3.5em;" | 21–34
! style="width:3.5em;" | 35–44
! style="width:3.5em;" | 45–54
! style="width:3.5em;" | 55 +
! style="width:4.5em;" | Média
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Homem
| 71%
| 81%
| 60%
| 63%
| 69%
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Mulher
| 81%
| 65%
| 62%
| 83%
| 67%
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Média
| 76%
| 73%
| 61%
| 73%
| 68%
|}

O livro não menciona o número de respondentes em cada segmento, por isso é difícil dizer se algum dos desvios é estatisticamente significativo, mas não parece haver uma diferença entre as preferências dos homens e das mulheres. No entanto, tal diferença foi reivindicada por outros autores, em ambas as direções. A pesquisa da American Standard concluiu: "Muitos homens votaram por ''externa'', dizendo que isso tornava o papel mais fácil de ser alcançado". Inventor Curtis Batts chega a uma conclusão diferente de sua experiência pessoal: "As mulheres gostam ''externa'', e os homens gostam ''interna''. Eu acho que incomoda as mulheres quando toca a parede."A colunista de aconselhamento, Maud, da ''The Press'', afirma que as mulheres preferem ''externa'' porque são "pensadoras lógicas".

Uma pesquisa da Cottonelle indicou que os homens eram mais propensos do que as mulheres a perceber e ficarem irritados com um rolo de papel higiênico pendurado contra sua preferência.

Uma ocorrência de cultura popular de uma teoria de gênero é encontrada no ''Weekly World News'', um tabloide de supermercado que publica histórias extravagantes para efeitos cômicos. Na história de 2003 da ''North Korea Shocker!'', a WWN afirmou que o líder norte-coreano [[Kim Jong-il]] era secretamente feminino. Como evidência, Kim supostamente assistia a [[Home Shopping Network]], é membro do Clube do Livro da Oprah e "Grita com funcionários que deixam o assento do [[vaso sanitário]] e penduram rolos de papel higiênico para fora, em vez de para dentro".

De acordo com ''W. C. Privy's Original Bathroom Companion, Number 2'',"Por mais de 4 para 1 pessoas mais velhas preferem dispensar o papel higiênico na frente." A mesma alegação é feita por ''The Bath Companion'', de James Buckley, para pessoas com mais de 50 anos.

==== Classe e política ====
Sinrod observou em sua pesquisa: "60% dos que ganham US$ 50 mil ou mais preferem ''externa'' e 73% daqueles que ganham menos de US$ 20 mil preferem ''interna''". Sobre o que isso prova: "Eu não sei, mas com certeza é interessante".

Em uma eleição local em [[Saskatoon]], [[Saskatchewan]], novas urnas eletrônicas foram submetidas a um teste com a pergunta: "Você é a favor do papel higiênico em todos os banheiros públicos que estão sendo instalados com a ponta solta para cima e pela frente do rolo? " A resposta foi sim: 768-196, ou 80% ''externa''. Foi pensado para ser uma pergunta "que não levou associação política". No entanto, o projeto científico de um adolescente na Feira de Ciências e Engenharia dos Apalaches do Sul, e um dos favoritos do coordenador da feira, foi uma pesquisa concluindo que os liberais preferem ''externa'' enquanto os conservadores ''interna''.

==== Caráter ====
Em seu livro de 2003, ''10 Steps to Sales Success'', Tim Breithaupt propõe um conjunto de quatro tipos de personalidade evoluindo a partir do trabalho de Carl Jung: Socializador, Diretor, Pensador e Relator. Breithaupt escreve que o gerenciamento de papel higiênico é um detalhe importante para os Pensadores, enquanto os Diretores não se importam, desde que o documento esteja disponível. Em seu livro ''Three Keys to Self-Understanding'', de 2001, Pat Wyman considera ter uma opinião sobre papel higiênico no [[Eneagrama de Personalidade|Eneagrama da Personalidade]], que classifica as pessoas como ''Ones, Twos, Threes'' e assim por diante: "As pessoas sabem a resposta a tais dilemas. "

=== Preferências notáveis ===

A colunista de aconselhamento [[Ann Landers]] (Eppie Lederer) foi questionada sobre a maneira como o papel higiênico deve ser suspenso. Ela respondeu ''interna'', recebendo milhares de cartas em protesto; ela então recomendou ''externa'', recebendo milhares mais. Ela refletiu que as 15 mil cartas tornaram o papel higiênico a questão mais controversa nos 31 anos de sua história, perguntando: "Com tantos problemas no mundo, por que milhares de pessoas estavam fazendo uma questão de lenços?"

Em novembro de 1986, Landers disse à ''Canadian Commercial Travellers Association'' que "papel higiênico de alta qualidade tem desenhos que estão do lado certo" na posição de cima. Em 1996, ela explicou a questão no ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]'', onde 68% da platéia do estúdio foi mais favorecida; Oprah sugeriu que ''interna'' usa mais papel. Em 1998, ela escreveu que a questão "parece destinada a durar para sempre", insistindo: "Apesar do fato de que um número esmagador de pessoas prefere o rolo pendurado de forma que o papel chegue ao topo, eu ainda prefiro ter o papel pendurado perto da parede ". No dia de sua última coluna em 2002, Landers escreveu: "P.S. O papel higiênico fica por cima". Seu comentário publicado sobre o assunto continuou mesmo depois de sua morte. 2005 viu a estréia de uma peça de uma mulher escrita por David Rambo: um estudo de personagem de Ann Landers intitulado ''The Lady with All the Answers''. O papel higiênico surge mais uma vez, e a atriz analisa o público por suas opiniões.

Em seu artigo na Teaching Sociology, Burns escreve que o exercício de pendurar papel higiênico é valioso em parte porque "[o] assunto é familiar a todos; todos são especialistas e todos têm uma opinião." Muitos artistas, celebridades e empresários divulgaram sua opinião sobre o tema.

[[Ficheiro:Toilet-paper-roll-patent-US465588-0.png|miniaturadaimagem|Original de Seth Wheeler (''[[Circa|c.]]'' 1891) Ilustração da Patente dos EUA.]]

== Consequências sociais ==
A orientação do papel higiênico é frequentemente mencionada como um obstáculo para os casais. A questão também pode surgir em empresas e locais públicos.

Mesmo na [[Estação Polo Sul Amundsen-Scott|Estação de Pesquisa Amundsen-Scott]], no [[Polo Sul|Pólo Sul]], foram levantadas queixas sobre a instalação do papel higiênico. Durante a noite polar de seis meses, algumas dezenas de moradores estão presos vivendo juntos, e enquanto muitas das dores de cabeça da vida moderna estão longe, a comida e a higiene não estão. Apesar dos desafios colocados pelo hostil clima antártico, "é nas provas mais mundanas da vida cotidiana que os embates de personalidade são revelados".

== Soluções ==

Algumas das soluções propostas para este problema envolvem mais ou melhor tecnologia, enquanto outras se concentram no comportamento humano.

=== Mecânica ===
O Tilt-A-Roll é um dispensador giratório de papel higiênico inventado por Curtis Batts em 1996, um engenheiro industrial nativo de [[Dallas]]. Suas patentes sobre a invenção resumem seu design como "Um acoplamento angular ajustável fixa o garfo ao conjunto de montagem e permite a rotação do garfo em torno de um eixo direcionado ortogonalmente através do fuso, de forma que o rolo de papel possa ser orientado para desenrolar papel por cima ou de debaixo do rolo, conforme desejado." Um inventor chamado Rocky Hutson demonstrou um dispositivo similar que ele chamou de T.P. Gire para os produtores do programa de televisão ''PitchMen'' no final de 2009.

Outra solução é instalar dois dispensadores de papel higiênico, como é mais comum em banheiros públicos e hotéis. Um leitor da coluna ''Annie's Mailbox'' recomenda usar um suporte grande o suficiente para caber dois rolos, observando que a ''externa'' é mais popular. Outro leitor evita a questão ao dispensar o suporte, empilhando cinco ou seis rolos em uma grande cesta de [[vime]]. Mesmo usando banheiros separados pode ajudar. Outras soluções incluem suportes verticais.

=== Comportamental ===
A orientação do papel higiênico tem sido usada retoricamente como a última questão que o governo não dita, em cartas ao editor que protestam contra a regulamentação da [[poluição sonora]]. e requisitos mais rigorosos para obter um [[divórcio]]. Em 2006, protestando contra a proibição de [[Nova Hampshire|New Hampshire]] de fumar em restaurantes e bares, o representante Ralph Boehm (R-Litchfield) perguntou: "Em breve será dito em que direção o papel higiênico deve ficar pendurado no rolo?"

No livro de 2005 de David O'Connor, ''Henderson's House Rules: The Official Guide to Replacing the Toilet Paper and Other Domestic Topics of Great Dispute''visa resolver desacordos com um mínimo de debate ou compromisso, oferecendo regras razoáveis e autorizadas. A "Regra da Casa" para papel higiênico é extensa e uma página inteira é dedicada a um diagrama dessa orientação. Mas O'Connor escreve que "se uma mulher membro do agregado familiar tem uma forte preferência pelo papel higiênico para pendurar e contra a parede, essa preferência prevalece. É reconhecidamente uma preferência estranha, mas as mulheres usam papel higiênico muito mais frequentemente do que homens - daí a regra ".

=== Referências bibliográficas ===

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=== Leitura adicional ===

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*:References "a Reader's Digest poll". Primary source unclear.
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*:Mentions Bob Palmer of Denver's KCNC-TV doing a show on this topic.
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*:Presents a statistical test to determine gender differences in toilet paper orientation.
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[[Categoria:Orientação]]
[[Categoria:Simetria]]
[[Categoria:Pesquisas]]

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Nefão II de Constantinopla

新規更新されました。 April 27, 2018 at 08:09AM
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Nefão II de Constantinopla
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意味を調べるNextShark

新規更新April 27, 2018 at 08:09AM
【外部リンク】

NextShark

Karaja8899: I created a page for NextShark.com, the largest online publication targeting Asian Americans

|alexa= 8,822 ()<ref name="alexa"></ref>|advertising=|registration=|language=English|genre=|foundation=|launch_date=|location_city=Newport Beach, California|location_country=|area_served=|key_people=|num_employees=|company_slogan=|website_type=Media and Entertainment|current_status=Active}}
'''NextShark''' is an American [[digital media]] and [[entertainment]] company focused on Asian American and Asian News<ref> Crunchbase|website=Crunchbase|language=en|access-date=2018-04-26}}</ref>. The brand produces editorial and video content, live events, and social, shareable content across major social media platforms, and covers a variety of categories including business, culture, entertainment lifestyle, and politics<ref> HuffPost|website=www.huffingtonpost.com|language=en|access-date=2018-04-26}}</ref>.

NextShark has been cited by [[The New York Times]]<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>, [[BBC News|BBC]]<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>, [[Forbes]]<ref></ref>, [[The Washington Post]]<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>, [[The Atlantic]]<ref></ref>, [[The Guardian|The Guardian,]]<ref> Vera Chok|last=Chok|first=Vera|date=2017-08-29|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-04-26}}</ref> and [[Bloomberg Businessweek]]<ref></ref> for their extensive coverage on Hollywood Whitewashing<ref></ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> <ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>and crimes against Asian Americans.<ref></ref> <ref></ref>

== History ==
NextShark was founded by Benny Luo in 2013 after he sold [[NewMediaRockstars]]<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref></ref>. The company is headquartered in Newport Beach, California and describes itself as "the leading source for Asian Americans"<ref></ref>. They receive over 3 million readers a month making them the largest online publication targeting Asian Americans.<ref> School of Social Sciences UCI Social Sciences|website=www.socsci.uci.edu|language=en|access-date=2018-04-26}}</ref> <ref></ref><ref></ref>

== References ==

== External links ==

*

[[Category:Fashion websites]]
[[Category:American websites]]
[[Category:Women's websites]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2005]]
[[Category:Lifestyle websites]]

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Lisa Marriott

新規更新されました。 April 27, 2018 at 06:11AM
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Lisa Marriott
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Patricio Jara

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Patricio Jara
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وارنر كويتير

新規更新されました。 April 27, 2018 at 06:05AM
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وارنر كويتير
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绕岛巡航

新規更新されました。 April 27, 2018 at 05:03AM
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绕岛巡航
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意味を調べるDemografía de África

新規更新April 27, 2018 at 12:01AM
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Demografía de África

45.71.187.91: Página creada con «áfrica me vale un huevo y mediohttps://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quo.es%2Fvar%2Fquo%2Fstorage%2Fimages%2Fnaturaleza%2Fque-fue-antes-el-huevo-o-la-ga…»

áfrica me vale un huevo y mediohttps://www.google.com.ec/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quo.es%2Fvar%2Fquo%2Fstorage%2Fimages%2Fnaturaleza%2Fque-fue-antes-el-huevo-o-la-gallina%2F602123-2-esl-ES%2Fque-fue-antes-el-huevo-o-la-gallina_full_landscape.jpg&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quo.es%2Fnaturaleza%2Fque-fue-antes-el-huevo-o-la-gallina&docid=akgijJyGP_HqsM&tbnid=45BLXJ8T0knklM%3A&vet=10ahUKEwjN0vLOmtjaAhVvUN8KHctaDlcQMwiiASgMMAw..i&w=600&h=406&bih=745&biw=1440&q=huevo%20de%20gallina&ved=0ahUKEwjN0vLOmtjaAhVvUN8KHctaDlcQMwiiASgMMAw&iact=mrc&uact=8

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意味を調べる1982 في بيرو

新規更新April 26, 2018 at 11:56PM
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1982 في بيرو

JarBot: بوت:إنشاء

فيما يلي قوائم الأحداث التي وقعت خلال عام '''[[1982]] في [[بيرو]]'''.

== سياسة ==
=== تعيين في المنصب ===
* 26 يوليو – [[فالنتين بانياغوا]] .
== مواليد ==

=== يناير ===
* 2 يناير – [[خوان كارلوس مارينيو]] لاعب كرة قدم بيروفي.

== وفيات ==

=== يوليو ===
* 26 يوليو – [[ريكاردو غودوي]] (مواليد 1905)
=== ديسمبر ===
* 30 ديسمبر – [[البرتو فارغاس]] (مواليد 1896)

[[تصنيف:1982 في بيرو]]

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Acrocera bimaculata

新規更新されました。 April 27, 2018 at 01:47AM
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Acrocera bimaculata
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2018年4月26日木曜日

意味を調べるDarouble, New South Wales

新規更新April 26, 2018 at 09:56PM
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Darouble, New South Wales

D A R C 12345: cre8stub

[[file:Oxley NSW.PNG|thumb|right|[[Oxley County]] NSW.]]
'''Darouble Parish (Oxley County), New South Wales''' is a [[rural locality]] of [[Bogan Shire]] and a [[Lands administrative divisions of Australia|civil parish]] of [[Oxley County, New South Wales]].<ref>Robert McLean, The New atlas of Australia : the complete work containing over one hundred maps and full descriptive geography of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia, together with numerous illustrations and copious indices (Sydney :[[John Sands (printer)|John Sands]], [1886) Map 14.</ref> a [[Cadastral divisions of New South Wales]].<ref></ref>

The [[civil parish|parish]] is on the [[Bogan River]] south of [[Nyngan]].<ref>[https://ift.tt/2FiNTqC County of Oxley],New South Wales. Department of Lands [[County of Cowley and Co. Buccleuch New South Wales, 1871 map]].</ref>

==References==
[[Category:Localities in New South Wales]]

[[Category:Geography of New South Wales]]
[[Category:Central West (New South Wales)]]

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意味を調べるNyngan Parish (Oxley County), New South Wales

新規更新April 26, 2018 at 09:53PM
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Nyngan Parish (Oxley County), New South Wales

D A R C 12345: edit minor changes

[[file:Oxley NSW.PNG|thumb|right|[[Oxley County]] NSW.]]
'''Nyngan Parish (Oxley County), New South Wales''' is a [[rural locality]] of [[Bogan Shire]] and a [[Lands administrative divisions of Australia|civil parish]] of [[Oxley County, New South Wales]].<ref>Robert McLean, The New atlas of Australia : the complete work containing over one hundred maps and full descriptive geography of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia, together with numerous illustrations and copious indices (Sydney :[[John Sands (printer)|John Sands]], [1886) Map 14.</ref> a [[Cadastral divisions of New South Wales]].<ref></ref>

The [[civil parish|parish]] is on the [[Bogan River]].<ref>[https://ift.tt/2FiNTqC County of Oxley],New South Wales. Department of Lands [[County of Cowley and Co. Buccleuch New South Wales, 1871 map]].</ref>

==References==
[[Category:Localities in New South Wales]]

[[Category:Geography of New South Wales]]
[[Category:Central West (New South Wales)]]

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List of erotic and sex workers with unnatural death

新規更新されました。 April 26, 2018 at 09:56PM
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List of erotic and sex workers with unnatural death
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ناحية جنغ الماس

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ناحية جنغ الماس
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塞尔焦·富比尼

新規更新されました。 April 26, 2018 at 09:50PM
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塞尔焦·富比尼
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Ion Cernea

新規更新されました。 April 26, 2018 at 09:39PM
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Ion Cernea
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Лок, Гари

新規更新されました。 April 26, 2018 at 01:21PM
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Лок, Гари
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意味を調べるLý thuyết báo hiệu

新規更新April 26, 2018 at 01:27PM
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Lý thuyết báo hiệu

Tuanminh01:

[[Tập tin:Springbok_pronk.jpg|nhỏ|251x251px|Bằng cách bật nhảy, một con [[linh dương nhảy]] (''Antidorcas marsupialis'') đang gửi dấu hiệu rằng nó là một con non, khỏe và không dễ bắt đến các con thú [[săn mồi]] như [[báo săn]].]]
Trong [[sinh học tiến hóa]], '''lý thuyết báo hiệu''' là một tập hợp các nghiên cứu [[lý thuyết]] tập trung vào [[giao tiếp ở động vật]], cả trong nội bộ loài và ngoài loài. Câu hỏi trung tâm là khi các sinh vật có lợi ích mâu thuẫn nhau, chẳng hạn như [[chọn lọc giới tính]], nên được dự kiến sẽ cung cấp '''các báo hiệu trung thực''' (thực hiện không nhằm ý đồ gì) thay vì gian lận. [[Mô hình toán học]] mô tả cách tín hiệu có thể đóng góp cho một [[chiến lược tiến hóa ổn định]].

Tín hiệu được đưa ra trong các bối cảnh như lựa chọn bạn tình của giống cái, các tín hiệu này phụ thuộc vào tín hiệu của các con đực quảng cáo trước áp lực chọn lọc. Các tín hiệu do đó phát triển bởi vì chúng thay đổi hành vi của bên nhận để mang lại lợi ích cho bên ra dấu hiệu. Tín hiệu có thể trung thực, truyền đạt thông tin về sức khỏe cho bên nhận hoặc là không trung thực. Một con vật có thể lừa gạt bằng cách đưa ra một tín hiệu không trung thực, mà có thể mang lại lợi ích ngắn gọn cho nó, với nguy cơ phá hoại hệ thống báo hiệu cho toàn bộ loài.

Câu hỏi về việc lựa chọn các tín hiệu hoạt động ở mức độ của sinh vật hoặc gen riêng lẻ hay ở cấp độ của nhóm, đã được các nhà sinh vật học tranh luận như [[Richard Dawkins]], lập luận rằng các con vật tiến hóa để báo hiệu và nhận tín hiệu tốt hơn, bao gồm cả chống lại các tín hiệu gian lận. Amotz Zahavi cho rằng gian lận có thể được kiểm soát bởi nguyên tắc khuyết tật, trong đó con ngựa tốt nhất trong một cuộc đua có chấp là con mang khối lượng chấp lớn nhất. Theo lý thuyết của Zahavi, các tín hiệu như con công đực có 'đuôi' thật sự là điểm chấp, rất tốn kém để sản xuất. Hệ thống này tiến hóa ổn định vì cái đuôi sặc sỡ lớn là tín hiệu trung thực. Các nhà sinh vật học đã cố gắng xác minh nguyên tắc chấp, nhưng với kết quả không phù hợp. Nhà sinh học toán học [[Ronald Fisher]] phân tích sự đóng góp có hai bản sao của mỗi gen (diploidy) sẽ làm cho tín hiệu trung thực, chứng minh rằng một hiệu ứng runaway có thể xảy ra trong [[chọn lọc giới tính]]. Sự cân bằng tiến hóa phụ thuộc rất nhiều vào sự cân bằng giữa chi phí và lợi ích.

Các cơ chế tương tự có thể thấy ở người, nơi các nhà nghiên cứu đã nghiên cứu các hành vi bao gồm những rủi ro của những người đàn ông trẻ tuổi, săn bắt động vật lớn làm thú nuôi và các nghi thức tôn giáo tốn kém.
==Tham khảo==

==Nguồn tham khảo==

*
* Barrett, L.; Dunbar, R.; Lycett, J. (2002) ''Human evolutionary psychology''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
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* Hawkes, K. (1990) Why do men hunt? Some benefits for risky choices. In: Cashdan, E. (ed) ''Uncertainty in tribal and peasant economies''. Westview, Boulder, 145–166.
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* Hood, R.; Hill, P.; Spilka, B. (2009) ''The Psychology of Religion: An Empirical Approach''. New York: Guilford Press.
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* Irons, W. (1996) "Morality as an Evolved Adaptation" in ''Investigating the Biological Foundations of Morality'', JP Hurd (ed.) Lewiston: Edwin Mellon Press, 1–34.
* Irons, W. (2001) Religion as a hard-to-fake sign of commitment, in ''The Evolution of Commitment'', Randolph Nesse (ed.) New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 292–309.
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* Johnstone, R. A. (1997) The evolution of animal signals. In: Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) ''Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach''. Blackwell, Oxford, 155–178.
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* Kelly, R. L. (1995) ''The foraging spectrum: diversity in hunter-gatherer lifeways''. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
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* Knight, C. (1998) [https://ift.tt/2gkw9AO Ritual/speech coevolution: a solution to the problem of deception.] In J. R. Hurford, M. Studdert-Kennedy & C. Knight (eds), ''Approaches to the Evolution of Language.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 68–91.
*
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* [[John Krebs|Krebs, John]] and [[Richard Dawkins|Dawkins, Richard]] (1984) Animal signals: mind-reading and manipulation. in ''Behavioural Ecology: an evolutionary approach'', 2nd ed ([[John Krebs|Krebs, JR]] &, Davies, N.B., eds), Sinauer: 380–402.
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* Lee, R.B. (1979) ''The !Kung San: men, women and work in a foraging society''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Lee, R.B. (1993) ''The Dobe Ju/'hoansi''. New York: Harcourt Brace.
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* Marlowe, F.W. (2010) ''The Hadza: Hunter-gatherers of Tanzania''. Berkeley: University of California Press.
* Marshall, L. (1976) ''The !Kung of Nyae Nyae''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
*
* Maynard Smith, J. and [[David Harper (biologist)|Harper, David]] (2003) ''Animal Signals'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*
* McElreath, R and Boyd, R (2007) ''Mathematical Models of Social Evolution''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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* Pentland, Alex (2008) ''Honest Signals''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
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* Sosis, R. (1997) ''The Collective Action Problem of Male Cooperative Labor on Ifaluk Atoll''. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of New Mexico.
*
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[[Thể loại:Giao tiếp động vật]]
[[Thể loại:Sinh học tiến hóa]]

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いしかわかずはる

新規更新されました。 April 26, 2018 at 11:07AM
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いしかわかずはる
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意味を調べる世界纪录认证

新規更新April 26, 2018 at 11:25AM
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世界纪录认证

ToothpasteLake：请求快速删除（CSD G11）

== 概述 ==

* 世界纪录认证WORLD RECORD CERTIFICATION，简称（WRCA），希望通过认证各个领域的各项指标最高的世界纪录，研究，宣传，数据维护，传承教育，展示交易等，来帮助人们发掘潜力并重新审视世界。世界纪录认证机构专注于推动和加快世界纪录文化传播发展，致力提升世界纪录保持者的关注度和知名度，打造核心文化。被认证的世界纪录将载入世界纪录大全史册。

== 基本简介 ==

* 世界纪录认证希望通过认可各个领域"之最"，来帮助人们发觉自己的潜力并重新审视世界。我们研究、测量、纪录和认证世界上的各类神奇的世界之最，通过世界纪录认证这个独特的窗口，创造出娱乐大众、传递信息以及激励人们的世界级的产品。

== 纪录展示 ==

* 2017年1月18日上午10时，大熊猫"巴斯"的贺岁庆典在海峡(福州)熊猫世界举行，福建省委宣传部副部长徐姗娜、福州市副市长李春等领导，以及来自世界各地的嘉宾、为"巴斯"庆生。1980年出生的熊猫"巴斯"今年已经37岁，是目前世界上现存的最长寿大熊猫，也是1990年北京亚运会吉祥物"盼盼"的原型。庆典现场，福建省宣传部副部长徐姗娜、福州市副市长李春等领导共同为"巴斯和平图腾"碑文揭牌，世界纪录认证官为"巴斯"颁发了"世界上现存最长寿圈养大熊猫"证书。随后，"巴斯"戴上长寿桂冠<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
* 座落在中国江西上饶三清山南清园景区的东方女神，海拔高度约1200米，通高86米，受到风化后形成惟妙惟肖的女神像。经世界纪录认证英国公司（WRCA）官方人员现场测量数据和审核，认定为是"世界最大的天然女神峰"。世界纪录认证官Damir First现场公布了测量数据和宣读认证结果，并向三清山风景区党委书记诸立颁发"世界最大的天然女神峰"世界纪录证书。 <ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
* 2017年7月16日上午十点，长沙市李自健美术馆获世界纪录认证机构（WRCA）认证为"全球最大的艺术家个人美术馆"，并在美术馆举行了隆重的授证仪式。当天，有近千余名观众，其中不乏来自各个领域的重要嘉宾。其中包括省人大常委会原副主任肖雅瑜先生，湖南省国安厅厅长杨光荣先生，安监局党组书记、局长李大剑先生，国资委副主任杨平先生，长沙市市委常委宣传部及统战部长高山、谭小平先生，湖南广播电视台副台长陈刚先生，文化厅非遗处长陈友材先生等一众政府重要领导。 <ref></ref>

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Radio "BlogFM Argentina"

新規更新されました。 April 26, 2018 at 09:01AM
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Radio "BlogFM Argentina"
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Tunisian Consultative Conference

新規更新されました。 April 26, 2018 at 07:02AM
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Tunisian Consultative Conference
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ジョヴァンニ・フランチェスコ・ピコ・デラ・ミランドラ

新規更新されました。 April 26, 2018 at 05:44AM
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ジョヴァンニ・フランチェスコ・ピコ・デラ・ミランドラ
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2018年4月25日水曜日

意味を調べるEric alpusig

新規更新April 25, 2018 at 08:29PM
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Eric alpusig

84.123.35.78:

Tiene 14 años, le gusta el arroz con pollo, le encanta la pizza. Tiene mucho talento en el fútbol
, le gustan las mates, Creo la pelota, en 2003. ESTUDIA EN SBJ

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意味を調べるMiquel Badenas Rico

新規更新April 25, 2018 at 04:29PM
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Miquel Badenas Rico

Manel planchart: Artículo creado con el #Asistentedeartículos

Miquel Badenas Rico nace el [[1926]] en [[Barcelona]], en [[Pueblo Seco]], concretamente en la calle Salvá. Pertenece a la tercera generación de una familia fuertemente enraizada en [[Avenida del Paralelo|El Paralelo]]. Es frecuentador ya des de su más tierna infancia de sus teatros, sobre todo a aquellos dedicados al género lírico. Por su conocimiento de la avenida barcelonense, sus vivencias en la misma y su labor de historiador, escribe cuatro libros dedicados a profundizar sobre la vida en El Paralelo y las figuras icónicas vinculadas con el mundo del teatro y del espectáculo de este barrio.

== Referencias ==



== Bibliografía ==


*

== Enlaces externos ==


* [http://www.ejemplo.com Sitio web oficial].

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Linha 9 do Tramway d'Île-de-France

新規更新されました。 April 25, 2018 at 12:24PM
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Linha 9 do Tramway d'Île-de-France
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Jun Jin

新規更新されました。 April 25, 2018 at 11:54AM
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Jun Jin
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Ваниити

新規更新されました。 April 25, 2018 at 11:08AM
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Ваниити
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意味を調べる馬場義久

新規更新April 25, 2018 at 11:55AM
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馬場義久

2402:6B00:4668:5F00:F4E5:9B62:2877:8D7E: ←新しいページ: 「'''馬場義久'''（ばばよしひさ、1949年 - ）は日本の経済学者。財政学、社会保障論専攻。早稲田大…」

'''馬場義久'''（ばばよしひさ、[[1949年]] - ）は[[日本]]の[[経済学者]]。[[財政学]]、[[社会保障]]論専攻。[[早稲田大学政治経済学術院]]教授。1972年[[一橋大学経済学部]]卒業<ref>[https://www.kinokuniya.co.jp/f/dsg-01-9784641123762]紀伊國屋書店</ref>。1977年一橋大学大学院経済学研究科修士課程修了。1981年一橋大学大学院経済学研究科博士課程単位取得退学。指導教官[[江見康一]]<ref>[https://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/6480/1/kenkyu0020101270.pdf]</ref>。[[早稲田大学政治経済学術院]]教授、早稲田大学現代政治経済研究所兼任研究員を兼任。専攻は[[財政学]]、[[社会保障]]論<ref>[http://researchers.waseda.jp/profile/ja.6259a8dcef6f83b529b1e943d2e9cd0c.html 「馬場　義久」]早稲田大学</ref><ref>[https://ift.tt/2qVUaUN 「馬場　義久　教授」]</ref><ref>[http://www.yuhikaku.co.jp/books/detail/9784641165182]有斐閣</ref>。
== 著作 ==
=== 著書 ===
*『わが国のフリンジ・ベネフイツトの実態とその課税方法に関する研究』早稲田大学 1992年
*『わが国における法人税と個人所得税の負担調整のあり方に関する研究』早稲田大学 1994年
*『都市復興の法と財政』（三宅雄彦,和田正幸と共著）[[勁草書房]] 1997年
*『所得課税の理論と政策』税務経理協会 1998年
*『多国籍企業の投資と法人税システムのあり方に関する研究』早稲田大学 1998年
*『資産所得課税の理論と実際』日本証券経済研究所 2000年
*『課税の中立性とわが国の金融所得税制のあり方に関する理論的・実証的研究』早稲田大学 2003年
*『マクロ経済学と経済制度』（編）[[早稲田大学出版部]] 2005年
*『現代財政学』（[[横山彰]],[[堀場勇夫]]と共著）[[有斐閣]] 2009年
*『日本の財政を考える』（横山彰,堀場勇夫,[[牛丸聡]]と共著）有斐閣 2017年
=== 訳書 ===
*D.J.ハリス『資本蓄積と所得分配』（[[森義隆]]と共訳）[[日本経済評論社]] 1983年
*J.A.ペックマン『税制改革の理論と現実』（[[石弘光]]と共訳）[[東洋経済新報社]] 1988年
*ピーター・バーチ・ソレンセン編著『北欧諸国の租税政策』（監訳）日本証券経済研究所 2001年
== 脚注 ==

[[Category:日本の経済学者]]
[[Category:早稲田大学の教員]]
[[Category:一橋大学出身の人物]]
[[Category:1949年生]]
[[Category:存命人物]]

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