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Amicus of Giovinazzo
Srnec: /* Loyal vassal */ sp.
'''Amicus of Giovinazzo''', also '''Amicus II''' (, ; fl. 1063–1090), was a [[Normans|Norman]] nobleman and military leader during the [[Norman conquest of southern Italy]]. He was the count of [[Molfetta]] from 1068 until his death and of [[Giovinazzo]] from 1068 until 1073. He came from a prominent family often opposed to the rule of the [[Hauteville family|Hautevilles]]. In 1067–68, 1072–73 and 1079–80 he took part in rebellions against the Hauteville [[Duke of Apulia]]. In 1067 and 1079 he received aid from [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]] against the duke.
In 1074–75, Amicus invaded [[Kingdom of Croatia (medieval)|Croatia]] in support of the [[Papacy]] in a dispute with the Croatian king. He captured the king, [[Petar Krešimir IV]], paving the way for coronation of the Papacy's ally, [[Dmitar Zvonimir]]. He probably intended to carve out for himself a principality there, but he was defeated by the [[Republic of Venice]] (acting on behalf of Byzantium) and returned to Italy.
In 1081–82, Amicus participated in the invasion of Byzantium. He led the right wing at the [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]]. His bungled attack almost cost the Normans the victory, and he endeavoured to redeem himself by charging the emperor, which was nearly successful.
==Family==
Amicus II belonged to a family known to modern scholars as the "sons of Amicus". His grandfather and namesake, Amicus I, lived in [[Duchy of Normandy|Normandy]] before 1030. Two of the latter's sons, [[Walter of Civitate|Walter]] and [[Peter I of Trani|Peter I]], arrived in Italy before 1038. Walter was the father of Amicus II and [[Peter of Lesina]]. Amicus was thus the first cousin of Peter I's sons, [[Geoffrey of Taranto]] and [[Peter II of Trani]]. The family was related—how is not known—to the Hauteville family.
Amicus was married to a daughter (name unknown) of Count [[Joscelin of Molfetta]]. With her he had at least one son, [[Godfrey of Molfetta|Godfrey]].
==Lands==
Amicus acquired lands in several places across southern Italy, as well as the lordships of Giovinazzo, Molfetta, [[Spinazzola]] and [[Terlizzi]].
On 26 June 1066 in Molfetta, Amicus and his father-in-law made a donation to the [[Abbey of the Santissima Trinità (Venosa)|Abbey of the Santissima Trinità in Venosa]]. He also possessed lands in [[Campomarino]] that he gave to the Abbey of Santa Maria a Mare in the [[Tremiti Islands]].
Amicus' family was active in the conquest of Apulia. His cousin, Peter II, took [[Trani]] in 1054, and his cousin, Geoffrey, took [[Taranto]] in 1063 and [[Otranto]] in 1064. These conquests were made on their own initiative and the cities were held by them by right of conquest. According to the ''[[Anonymi Barensis Chronicon|Anonymous Chronicle of Bari]]'', Amicus entered the small coastal town of Giovinazzo in 1068, a euphemistic way of saying he conquered it from the Byzantines. Amicus may have been given Giovinazzo (or its tribute) as early as 1058. That he did not, however, possess it at the start of the rebellion of 1067 is suggested by the fact that the Norman chronicler [[Amatus of Montecassino]] does not refer to him by any territory, but simply as ''Ami de Galtier'', that is, Amicus son of Walter.
Likewise in 1068, with the rebellion crushed, Amicus' father-in-law fled to Greece and Amicus took over the port city of Molfetta. Amicus' was pardoned after his failed rebellion and forfeited only some minor properties. By October 1069 he had acquired the lordship of Spinazzola, probably by ducal grant. He is called ''Amico de Spiencello'' in a charter issued by the duke's chancery.
Following the second failed rebellion in 1073, however, Robert Guiscard confiscated Giovinazzo (which had gone over to his allegiance during the revolt). Amicus did retain Spinazzola, Terlizzi (acquired sometime earlier) and Molfetta after 1073. On 5 September 1073, Amicus founded and made a donation to the church of Saint Michael the Archangel in Terlizzi, which later became the cathedral. The witnesses present were his vassals Bernard Lautard and Azo, the notary Melo and the former Byzantine ''[[tourmarches]]'' Pantaleon. The donation made no mention of Duke Robert.
Following the third and final rebellion in 1078, Amicus was deprived of Spinazzola as well as his land on Mount Serico (today Castello di Monteserico, part of [[Genzano di Lucania]]). He successfully passed Molfetta on to his son, Godfrey, having in effect acquired it through Godfrey's mother.
==Early rebellions==
Robert had to deal with four rebellions: in 1067–68, 1072–73, 1079–80 and 1082–83. Only in the last of these did Amicus not join the rebels.
===1067–68===
There is disagreement among scholars concerning the dating of the first revolt. The ''Anonymous Chronicle of Bari'' has it beginning, under the leadership of Joscelin of Molfetta, in 1064, but there is little indication of military activity between that year and 1067. It is possible there were three separate but related revolts in 1064 (led by Joscelin), 1066 (Abelard) and 1067–68 (Amicus).
The revolt led by Amicus began between September and November 1067 while Guiscard was in Calabria. Among the other rebels were his father-in-law, Joscelin, as well as Roger Toutebove and Guiscard's own disaffected nephews, Count [[Geoffrey of Conversano]] and the dispossessed [[Abelard of Hauteville|Abelard]]. The rebellion received Byzantine financing. According to Amatus of Montecassino, Amicus himself was "lent … 100 hundredweight of gold" to spread the revolt, in exchange for which he sent a son as a hostage to [[Leo Perenos]], the Byzantine duke of [[Dyrrhachium]] who was organizing the revolt.
Amatus stresses that Guiscard moved quickly to suppress the first challenge to his rule, campaigning in the autumn of 1067 and into 1068. The beginning of the [[Siege of Bari]] in August 1068 suggests that the revolt had collapsed early that year, to allow enough time for Guiscard to prepare a major military operation against the last Byzantine stronghold in Italy. Following their defeat, Joscelin and Roger Toutebove fled to Constantinople, while Amicus and Guiscard's nephews were pardoned, losing only a few lands. Amicus and Abelard were present with the ducal entourage soon after. As an incentive to obedience, they were offered the opportunity to recover the lands they had lost or else receive new lands. By October 1069 Amicus had acquired the new lordship of Spinazzola.
===1072–73===
The cause of the second revolt was Guiscard's order to Peter II to hand over Taranto, which he was governing on behalf of his young nephew, [[Richard of Taranto|Richard]], son of Geoffrey. Peter refused to comply and the pardoned rebels of 1067, Amicus and Abelard, supported him. The rebellion was also joined by Abelard's half-brother [[Herman of Hauteville|Herman]], the Calabrian baron Robert Areng and Count [[Richard of Monte Sant'Angelo]]. Through the latter's contact, the rebels gained the support of the Prince [[Richard I of Capua]], the main rival of the Hautevilles in Italy.
The second revolt went badly. Guiscard captured Trani on 2 February 1073 and shortly afterwards Duke [[Guy of Sorrento]] captured Peter in a skirmish outside [[Andria]]. This time Amicus was deprived of Giovinazzo, although he held onto Molfetta and was allowed to keep Spinazzola and Terlizzi. Herman was captured during the revolt, but Abelard remained defiant in Calabria and did not make peace with the duke until early 1078. Amicus never recovered Giovinazzo. After Guiscard's death (1085), it was granted to his son [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond]] as part of the succession settlement in 1086.
==Invasion of Croatia==
In 1060, the [[synod of Split]] outlawed the [[Old Church Slavonic]] liturgy in the Croatian church and replaced it with the [[Latin rite]]. This sparked a rebellion on the island of [[Krk]] in 1064. At the same time as the church was seeking to enforce the synodal decrees of 1060, King [[Petar Krešimir IV]] was extending his authority over the Dalmatian coast. In 1069, he was made imperial representative in the [[Dalmatia (theme)|Theme of Dalmatia]]. After 1074, Krešimir disappears from the sources; there is no further record of him, including no mention of his death. [[Dmitar Zvonimir]], erstwhile [[Ban of Slavonia|''ban'' of Slavonia]], was crowned king in the fall of 1075. It was during the period from the fall of Krešimir to the coronation of Zvonimir that Amicus was active in Dalmatia.
At the time, the papal legate to Croatia was [[Gerard (archbishop of Siponto)|Gerard]], who, as the [[archbishop of Siponto]], was almost a neighbour of Amicus in southern Italy. It was probably his idea to use Amicus to help place Zvonimir, considered an ally of Rome, on the throne. Having been recently deprived of his lordship of Giovinazzo, Amicus was probably easily persuaded to make his fortune in Dalmatia. He was almost certainly promised land or a principality of his own as a reward. It is unlikely that the invitation of Amicus took place without Pope [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]]'s knowledge. Guiscard, on the other hand, had been excommunicated in 1074 and Amicus would not have felt any need to seek his permission.
Formally, Amicus was invited to Dalmatia by the communes of [[Split]], [[Trogir]], [[Zadar]] and [[Biograd na Moru|Biograd]]. He embarked in the autumn of 1074, probably from Molfetta, which was in his control, or possibly from [[Ancona]] further up the coast. He occupied several coastal cities, including Split. In November, Gerard held another synod at Split to reaffirm the decisions of 1060. According to a synodal document, it took place "at the time when duke Amicus took the Croatian king prisoner." Although it does not named the king, Petar Krešimir must be meant. A letter of Pope Gregory VII to Stephen II, [[bishop of Zadar]], dated to 1075, also mentions the capture of Petar Krešimir by Amicus. This is the last mention of Krešimir in any source. According to one source, it was while capturing the stronghold of [[Novalja]] on the island of [[Pag (island)|Pag]] that Amicus captured the king.
It has been argued that the Croatian king whom Amicus captured was not Petar Krešimir, but rather a certain Slavac, a champion of the Old Church Slavonic liturgy, who had succeeded the childless Krešimir upon the latter's death in late 1073 or early 1074, when his nephew [[Stephen II of Croatia|Stephen]] was judged unfit and forced to enter a monastery. Gregory VII allegedly encouraged the expedition of Amicus to remove Slavac and restore the Latin rite. The reign of Slavac is known only from a Renaissance source, [[Johannes Lucius]]. In fact, there was no 11th-century king of that name, but rather a 12th-century nobleman who was mistaken for a king by later generations.
While the Croatian king was in captivity, it seems that negotiations between the Papacy, the ''ban'' and the Norman count were ongoing. In a letter to [[Sweyn II of Denmark]] on 25 January 1075, Gregory VII writes that an unnamed Danish bishop had intimated that Sweyn might be willing to send one of his sons with an army to assist the Roman church against its enemies in a land which Gregory does not name but which was almost certainly Croatia. The Danish plan came to nothing and Zvonimir was crowned by Abbot Gebizo with regalia gifted by the pope at [[Solin]] on 9 October 1076 after swearing an oath to the papacy.
In the spring of 1075, according to a late source, Amicus attacked the coast of the [[Gulf of Quarnero]]. Between 14 April and 9 May ([[Translation of the Relics of Saint Nicholas from Myra to Bari|Translation of Saint Nicholas]]), he besieged the town of [[Rab (town)|Rab]] on the [[Rab|island of the same name]]. The ''Miracula Sancti Christophori'' of Bishop [[Juraj Koštica]], written towards 1308, reports that "a large group of Varangians" assaulted Rab. He provides dates, but no year, although from context it appears it can refer only to the expedition of Amicus who, as a Norman, could be described as a "[[Varangian]]" (Viking).
By 8 February 1075, however, Amicus had been substantially defeated through Venetian intervention. He had lost control of the Dalmatian cities of Split, Trogir, Zadar and Biograd, for on that date the Venetian doge, [[Domenico Silvio]], exacted an oath from four cities that they would never again allow the Normans in. Although Venice had been encouraged by the Byzantines to remove the Normans from Dalmatia (which Krešimir had only governed as a Byzantine province), the Venetian treaty with the Dalmatian cities made no reference to Byzantine authority: "Venice was now a fully autonomous state exercising its sovereignty without reference to any higher authority".
==Third rebellion==
In 1078, Robert provoked a third revolt when he demanded an [[Feudal aid|aid (''auxilium'')]] from his barons for the [[dowry]] of his daughter Gersent, betrothed to [[Hugh V of Maine|Hugh]], son of [[Azzo II of Este|Azzo II, marquis of Este]]. The revolt began in early 1079, when Peter II seized Trani, which had been confiscated from him in 1073. He was soon joined by Amicus and other inveterate opponents of Guiscard: his nephews Abelard, Herman, Geoffrey and now Geoffrey's brother, Count [[Robert of Montescaglioso]]; Count [[Henry of Monte Sant'Angelo]], brother of Richard; and a certain baron named Baldwin. [[Argyritzos]], former leader of the pro-Norman faction in Bari, had arranged the marriage of his daughter to Abelard in 1078. He threw his support behind the rebels and negotiated aid from Byzantium. Abelard had also arranged the marriage of his sister to a certain Gradilon, probably one of the leaders of the [[Slavs|Slavic]] communities in northern Apulia. Through the Count of Monte Sant'Angelo, Prince [[Jordan I of Capua]], who had succeeded his father in 1078, lent his support to the rebels.
Amicus appears to have been recognised as the senior rebel, since William of Apulia labels him the "most learned (experienced) count and ally". With Peter II, he marched on Giovinazzo. Defended by William, son of Ivo, the town remained loyal to Guiscard. The cousins put it to siege, but it was relieved by the arrival of a sizeable army under Guiscard's son [[Roger Borsa]]. It received an exemption from all taxes for three years in reward for its loyalty.
In the fall of 1079, Guiscard negotiated an agreement with Jordan of Capua, which destroyed the rebels' hope of outside support. Soon after Amicus made peace. In early 1080, Peter surrendered Trani and the rebellion came to an end. Even before Amicus had surrendered, Guiscard had confiscated Spinazzola and granted it to Godfrey, one of Amicus' vassals who had not joined him in revolt. Amicus' land on Mount Serico was likewise confiscated.
Between 1072 and 1080, documents survive from Terlizzi dated by the reigns of the Byzantine emperors. Amicus appears to have allowed this so as to prevent his subjects from recognising Duke Robert. His cousin Peter II followed a similar policy. In 1080 it came to an end and private documents from Amicus' domains (and Peter's) are dated from then on by the regnal year of "most invincible Lord Robert, duke of Italy, Calabria and Sicily". Also from this time Amicus was represented in Terlizzi by a [[viscount]], Urso, perhaps delegated to enforce the new permanent peace.
==Loyal vassal==
Having made his peace, which turned out to be permanent, Amicus took part in Robert Guiscard's attack on the Byzantine Empire in 1081, which culminated in the fall of Dyrrhachium in February 1082 after an eight-month siege. He led the right wing at the [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]]. [[Anna Komnene]], daughter of the Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]], is the primary source for the battle. She calls Amicus ''Amiketas''. Amicus' wing faced the Byzantine wing under [[Gregory Pakourianos]] to the north. Anna records that Amicus, leading a "formation of infantry and cavalry"—his entire wing—"struck near to the extremity of the battle line of Nabites", one of the [[Varangian]] generals. The charge was repulsed, with some men fleeing towards the sea while some Byzantines, believe the battle over, plundered the Norman baggage. Seeking to redeem himself, Amicus then led a small detachment to charge at Alexios himself and his guard of cavalry. The emperor barely escaped Amicus' lance, but the disorderly behaviour of his troops had rattled the emperor's [[Duklja]]n allies, who abandoned the field. Alexios then called a retreat and the Normans were victorious.
Amicus did not take part in Guiscard's invasion of [[Cephalonia]] in 1085, during which the latter died. He remained loyal to the duke's successor, Roger Borsa. He was recorded with Roger in Calabria in May 1087.
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==Notes==
==Sources==
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[[Category:Italo-Normans]]
[[Category:Norman mercenaries]]
[[Category:Norman warriors]]
[[Category:11th-century Normans]]
[[Category:People of the Byzantine–Norman wars]]
[[fr:Ami II de Trani]]
[[it:Amico di Giovinazzo]]
In 1074–75, Amicus invaded [[Kingdom of Croatia (medieval)|Croatia]] in support of the [[Papacy]] in a dispute with the Croatian king. He captured the king, [[Petar Krešimir IV]], paving the way for coronation of the Papacy's ally, [[Dmitar Zvonimir]]. He probably intended to carve out for himself a principality there, but he was defeated by the [[Republic of Venice]] (acting on behalf of Byzantium) and returned to Italy.
In 1081–82, Amicus participated in the invasion of Byzantium. He led the right wing at the [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]]. His bungled attack almost cost the Normans the victory, and he endeavoured to redeem himself by charging the emperor, which was nearly successful.
==Family==
Amicus II belonged to a family known to modern scholars as the "sons of Amicus". His grandfather and namesake, Amicus I, lived in [[Duchy of Normandy|Normandy]] before 1030. Two of the latter's sons, [[Walter of Civitate|Walter]] and [[Peter I of Trani|Peter I]], arrived in Italy before 1038. Walter was the father of Amicus II and [[Peter of Lesina]]. Amicus was thus the first cousin of Peter I's sons, [[Geoffrey of Taranto]] and [[Peter II of Trani]]. The family was related—how is not known—to the Hauteville family.
Amicus was married to a daughter (name unknown) of Count [[Joscelin of Molfetta]]. With her he had at least one son, [[Godfrey of Molfetta|Godfrey]].
==Lands==
Amicus acquired lands in several places across southern Italy, as well as the lordships of Giovinazzo, Molfetta, [[Spinazzola]] and [[Terlizzi]].
On 26 June 1066 in Molfetta, Amicus and his father-in-law made a donation to the [[Abbey of the Santissima Trinità (Venosa)|Abbey of the Santissima Trinità in Venosa]]. He also possessed lands in [[Campomarino]] that he gave to the Abbey of Santa Maria a Mare in the [[Tremiti Islands]].
Amicus' family was active in the conquest of Apulia. His cousin, Peter II, took [[Trani]] in 1054, and his cousin, Geoffrey, took [[Taranto]] in 1063 and [[Otranto]] in 1064. These conquests were made on their own initiative and the cities were held by them by right of conquest. According to the ''[[Anonymi Barensis Chronicon|Anonymous Chronicle of Bari]]'', Amicus entered the small coastal town of Giovinazzo in 1068, a euphemistic way of saying he conquered it from the Byzantines. Amicus may have been given Giovinazzo (or its tribute) as early as 1058. That he did not, however, possess it at the start of the rebellion of 1067 is suggested by the fact that the Norman chronicler [[Amatus of Montecassino]] does not refer to him by any territory, but simply as ''Ami de Galtier'', that is, Amicus son of Walter.
Likewise in 1068, with the rebellion crushed, Amicus' father-in-law fled to Greece and Amicus took over the port city of Molfetta. Amicus' was pardoned after his failed rebellion and forfeited only some minor properties. By October 1069 he had acquired the lordship of Spinazzola, probably by ducal grant. He is called ''Amico de Spiencello'' in a charter issued by the duke's chancery.
Following the second failed rebellion in 1073, however, Robert Guiscard confiscated Giovinazzo (which had gone over to his allegiance during the revolt). Amicus did retain Spinazzola, Terlizzi (acquired sometime earlier) and Molfetta after 1073. On 5 September 1073, Amicus founded and made a donation to the church of Saint Michael the Archangel in Terlizzi, which later became the cathedral. The witnesses present were his vassals Bernard Lautard and Azo, the notary Melo and the former Byzantine ''[[tourmarches]]'' Pantaleon. The donation made no mention of Duke Robert.
Following the third and final rebellion in 1078, Amicus was deprived of Spinazzola as well as his land on Mount Serico (today Castello di Monteserico, part of [[Genzano di Lucania]]). He successfully passed Molfetta on to his son, Godfrey, having in effect acquired it through Godfrey's mother.
==Early rebellions==
Robert had to deal with four rebellions: in 1067–68, 1072–73, 1079–80 and 1082–83. Only in the last of these did Amicus not join the rebels.
===1067–68===
There is disagreement among scholars concerning the dating of the first revolt. The ''Anonymous Chronicle of Bari'' has it beginning, under the leadership of Joscelin of Molfetta, in 1064, but there is little indication of military activity between that year and 1067. It is possible there were three separate but related revolts in 1064 (led by Joscelin), 1066 (Abelard) and 1067–68 (Amicus).
The revolt led by Amicus began between September and November 1067 while Guiscard was in Calabria. Among the other rebels were his father-in-law, Joscelin, as well as Roger Toutebove and Guiscard's own disaffected nephews, Count [[Geoffrey of Conversano]] and the dispossessed [[Abelard of Hauteville|Abelard]]. The rebellion received Byzantine financing. According to Amatus of Montecassino, Amicus himself was "lent … 100 hundredweight of gold" to spread the revolt, in exchange for which he sent a son as a hostage to [[Leo Perenos]], the Byzantine duke of [[Dyrrhachium]] who was organizing the revolt.
Amatus stresses that Guiscard moved quickly to suppress the first challenge to his rule, campaigning in the autumn of 1067 and into 1068. The beginning of the [[Siege of Bari]] in August 1068 suggests that the revolt had collapsed early that year, to allow enough time for Guiscard to prepare a major military operation against the last Byzantine stronghold in Italy. Following their defeat, Joscelin and Roger Toutebove fled to Constantinople, while Amicus and Guiscard's nephews were pardoned, losing only a few lands. Amicus and Abelard were present with the ducal entourage soon after. As an incentive to obedience, they were offered the opportunity to recover the lands they had lost or else receive new lands. By October 1069 Amicus had acquired the new lordship of Spinazzola.
===1072–73===
The cause of the second revolt was Guiscard's order to Peter II to hand over Taranto, which he was governing on behalf of his young nephew, [[Richard of Taranto|Richard]], son of Geoffrey. Peter refused to comply and the pardoned rebels of 1067, Amicus and Abelard, supported him. The rebellion was also joined by Abelard's half-brother [[Herman of Hauteville|Herman]], the Calabrian baron Robert Areng and Count [[Richard of Monte Sant'Angelo]]. Through the latter's contact, the rebels gained the support of the Prince [[Richard I of Capua]], the main rival of the Hautevilles in Italy.
The second revolt went badly. Guiscard captured Trani on 2 February 1073 and shortly afterwards Duke [[Guy of Sorrento]] captured Peter in a skirmish outside [[Andria]]. This time Amicus was deprived of Giovinazzo, although he held onto Molfetta and was allowed to keep Spinazzola and Terlizzi. Herman was captured during the revolt, but Abelard remained defiant in Calabria and did not make peace with the duke until early 1078. Amicus never recovered Giovinazzo. After Guiscard's death (1085), it was granted to his son [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond]] as part of the succession settlement in 1086.
==Invasion of Croatia==
In 1060, the [[synod of Split]] outlawed the [[Old Church Slavonic]] liturgy in the Croatian church and replaced it with the [[Latin rite]]. This sparked a rebellion on the island of [[Krk]] in 1064. At the same time as the church was seeking to enforce the synodal decrees of 1060, King [[Petar Krešimir IV]] was extending his authority over the Dalmatian coast. In 1069, he was made imperial representative in the [[Dalmatia (theme)|Theme of Dalmatia]]. After 1074, Krešimir disappears from the sources; there is no further record of him, including no mention of his death. [[Dmitar Zvonimir]], erstwhile [[Ban of Slavonia|''ban'' of Slavonia]], was crowned king in the fall of 1075. It was during the period from the fall of Krešimir to the coronation of Zvonimir that Amicus was active in Dalmatia.
At the time, the papal legate to Croatia was [[Gerard (archbishop of Siponto)|Gerard]], who, as the [[archbishop of Siponto]], was almost a neighbour of Amicus in southern Italy. It was probably his idea to use Amicus to help place Zvonimir, considered an ally of Rome, on the throne. Having been recently deprived of his lordship of Giovinazzo, Amicus was probably easily persuaded to make his fortune in Dalmatia. He was almost certainly promised land or a principality of his own as a reward. It is unlikely that the invitation of Amicus took place without Pope [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]]'s knowledge. Guiscard, on the other hand, had been excommunicated in 1074 and Amicus would not have felt any need to seek his permission.
Formally, Amicus was invited to Dalmatia by the communes of [[Split]], [[Trogir]], [[Zadar]] and [[Biograd na Moru|Biograd]]. He embarked in the autumn of 1074, probably from Molfetta, which was in his control, or possibly from [[Ancona]] further up the coast. He occupied several coastal cities, including Split. In November, Gerard held another synod at Split to reaffirm the decisions of 1060. According to a synodal document, it took place "at the time when duke Amicus took the Croatian king prisoner." Although it does not named the king, Petar Krešimir must be meant. A letter of Pope Gregory VII to Stephen II, [[bishop of Zadar]], dated to 1075, also mentions the capture of Petar Krešimir by Amicus. This is the last mention of Krešimir in any source. According to one source, it was while capturing the stronghold of [[Novalja]] on the island of [[Pag (island)|Pag]] that Amicus captured the king.
It has been argued that the Croatian king whom Amicus captured was not Petar Krešimir, but rather a certain Slavac, a champion of the Old Church Slavonic liturgy, who had succeeded the childless Krešimir upon the latter's death in late 1073 or early 1074, when his nephew [[Stephen II of Croatia|Stephen]] was judged unfit and forced to enter a monastery. Gregory VII allegedly encouraged the expedition of Amicus to remove Slavac and restore the Latin rite. The reign of Slavac is known only from a Renaissance source, [[Johannes Lucius]]. In fact, there was no 11th-century king of that name, but rather a 12th-century nobleman who was mistaken for a king by later generations.
While the Croatian king was in captivity, it seems that negotiations between the Papacy, the ''ban'' and the Norman count were ongoing. In a letter to [[Sweyn II of Denmark]] on 25 January 1075, Gregory VII writes that an unnamed Danish bishop had intimated that Sweyn might be willing to send one of his sons with an army to assist the Roman church against its enemies in a land which Gregory does not name but which was almost certainly Croatia. The Danish plan came to nothing and Zvonimir was crowned by Abbot Gebizo with regalia gifted by the pope at [[Solin]] on 9 October 1076 after swearing an oath to the papacy.
In the spring of 1075, according to a late source, Amicus attacked the coast of the [[Gulf of Quarnero]]. Between 14 April and 9 May ([[Translation of the Relics of Saint Nicholas from Myra to Bari|Translation of Saint Nicholas]]), he besieged the town of [[Rab (town)|Rab]] on the [[Rab|island of the same name]]. The ''Miracula Sancti Christophori'' of Bishop [[Juraj Koštica]], written towards 1308, reports that "a large group of Varangians" assaulted Rab. He provides dates, but no year, although from context it appears it can refer only to the expedition of Amicus who, as a Norman, could be described as a "[[Varangian]]" (Viking).
By 8 February 1075, however, Amicus had been substantially defeated through Venetian intervention. He had lost control of the Dalmatian cities of Split, Trogir, Zadar and Biograd, for on that date the Venetian doge, [[Domenico Silvio]], exacted an oath from four cities that they would never again allow the Normans in. Although Venice had been encouraged by the Byzantines to remove the Normans from Dalmatia (which Krešimir had only governed as a Byzantine province), the Venetian treaty with the Dalmatian cities made no reference to Byzantine authority: "Venice was now a fully autonomous state exercising its sovereignty without reference to any higher authority".
==Third rebellion==
In 1078, Robert provoked a third revolt when he demanded an [[Feudal aid|aid (''auxilium'')]] from his barons for the [[dowry]] of his daughter Gersent, betrothed to [[Hugh V of Maine|Hugh]], son of [[Azzo II of Este|Azzo II, marquis of Este]]. The revolt began in early 1079, when Peter II seized Trani, which had been confiscated from him in 1073. He was soon joined by Amicus and other inveterate opponents of Guiscard: his nephews Abelard, Herman, Geoffrey and now Geoffrey's brother, Count [[Robert of Montescaglioso]]; Count [[Henry of Monte Sant'Angelo]], brother of Richard; and a certain baron named Baldwin. [[Argyritzos]], former leader of the pro-Norman faction in Bari, had arranged the marriage of his daughter to Abelard in 1078. He threw his support behind the rebels and negotiated aid from Byzantium. Abelard had also arranged the marriage of his sister to a certain Gradilon, probably one of the leaders of the [[Slavs|Slavic]] communities in northern Apulia. Through the Count of Monte Sant'Angelo, Prince [[Jordan I of Capua]], who had succeeded his father in 1078, lent his support to the rebels.
Amicus appears to have been recognised as the senior rebel, since William of Apulia labels him the "most learned (experienced) count and ally". With Peter II, he marched on Giovinazzo. Defended by William, son of Ivo, the town remained loyal to Guiscard. The cousins put it to siege, but it was relieved by the arrival of a sizeable army under Guiscard's son [[Roger Borsa]]. It received an exemption from all taxes for three years in reward for its loyalty.
In the fall of 1079, Guiscard negotiated an agreement with Jordan of Capua, which destroyed the rebels' hope of outside support. Soon after Amicus made peace. In early 1080, Peter surrendered Trani and the rebellion came to an end. Even before Amicus had surrendered, Guiscard had confiscated Spinazzola and granted it to Godfrey, one of Amicus' vassals who had not joined him in revolt. Amicus' land on Mount Serico was likewise confiscated.
Between 1072 and 1080, documents survive from Terlizzi dated by the reigns of the Byzantine emperors. Amicus appears to have allowed this so as to prevent his subjects from recognising Duke Robert. His cousin Peter II followed a similar policy. In 1080 it came to an end and private documents from Amicus' domains (and Peter's) are dated from then on by the regnal year of "most invincible Lord Robert, duke of Italy, Calabria and Sicily". Also from this time Amicus was represented in Terlizzi by a [[viscount]], Urso, perhaps delegated to enforce the new permanent peace.
==Loyal vassal==
Having made his peace, which turned out to be permanent, Amicus took part in Robert Guiscard's attack on the Byzantine Empire in 1081, which culminated in the fall of Dyrrhachium in February 1082 after an eight-month siege. He led the right wing at the [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]]. [[Anna Komnene]], daughter of the Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]], is the primary source for the battle. She calls Amicus ''Amiketas''. Amicus' wing faced the Byzantine wing under [[Gregory Pakourianos]] to the north. Anna records that Amicus, leading a "formation of infantry and cavalry"—his entire wing—"struck near to the extremity of the battle line of Nabites", one of the [[Varangian]] generals. The charge was repulsed, with some men fleeing towards the sea while some Byzantines, believe the battle over, plundered the Norman baggage. Seeking to redeem himself, Amicus then led a small detachment to charge at Alexios himself and his guard of cavalry. The emperor barely escaped Amicus' lance, but the disorderly behaviour of his troops had rattled the emperor's [[Duklja]]n allies, who abandoned the field. Alexios then called a retreat and the Normans were victorious.
Amicus did not take part in Guiscard's invasion of [[Cephalonia]] in 1085, during which the latter died. He remained loyal to the duke's successor, Roger Borsa. He was recorded with Roger in Calabria in May 1087.
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==Notes==
==Sources==
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[[Category:Italo-Normans]]
[[Category:Norman mercenaries]]
[[Category:Norman warriors]]
[[Category:11th-century Normans]]
[[Category:People of the Byzantine–Norman wars]]
[[fr:Ami II de Trani]]
[[it:Amico di Giovinazzo]]
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