新規更新January 31, 2018 at 02:54PM
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Relieve en roca
Uruk:
[[File:Polonnaruwa.JPG|thumb|350px|Buda reclinado en [[Gal Vihara]], [[Sri Lanka]]. Se pueden observar los restos del cobertizo que originalmente lo cubría.]]
[[File:S10.08 Abu Simbel, image 9503.jpg|thumb|Dos de los relieves en los [[templos de Abu Simbel]], antes de su traslado.]]
Un '''relieve en roca''' es una [[Relieve (arte)|escultura en relieve]] tallada en "roca viva" como por ejemplo un acantilado, en vez de sobre un bloque de roca desprendido de la montaña. Constituyen un tipo de arte de roca, y a veces se les encuentra formando parte de conjuntos arquitectónicos excavados en la roca.<ref>Harmanşah (2014), 5–6</ref> Sin embargo, suelen ser omitidos en la mayoría de los tratados sobre arte en roca, los cuales se concentran en tallas y pinturas realizados por pueblos prehistóricos. Algunas de estos trabajos aprovechan los contornos naturales de la roca y los utilizan para definir una imagen, pero no constituyen relieves hechos por el hombre. Numerosas culturas han realizado relieves en roca a lo largo de la historia del hombre, y ocuparon un sitio importante en el arte del [[Antiguo Oriente Próximo]].<ref>Harmanşah (2014), 5–6; Canepa, 53</ref> Por lo general los relieves en roca son de grandes dimensiones, ya que es la forma que se puedan destacar en el entorno al aire libre. Muchas figuras son varias veces más grandes que el tamaño natural.
Desde un punto de vista estilístico por lo general están relacionados con otros tipos de escultura de la cultura y periodo aplicable, y excepto por casos de los hititas y persas por lo general se los analiza como parte de un tema más amplio.<ref>for example by Rawson and Sickman & Soper</ref> Los relieves en superficies casi verticales son los más comunes, aunque también se han encontrado relieves sobre superficies horizontales. Por lo general el término no comprende las tallas en relieve dentro de cuevas, sean naturales o excavadas por el hombre, las cuales son frecuentes en la arquitectura tallada en roca de India. Las formaciones naturales de roca que han sido talladas en forma de estatuas, tal como la famosa [[Gran Esfinge de Guiza]], por lo general son excluidas. Los relieves de grandes trozos de roca que se han conservado en su posición natural original, tal como el [[Relieve de Imamkullu|relieve hitita de İmamkullu]], pertenecen a esta categoría, pero las rocas más pequeñas se las suele clasificar como [[Estela (monumento)|estela]]s u [[ortostato]]s excavados. Es probable que muchos de los relieves antiguos originalmente estuvieran pintados, sobre una cubierta de yeso; de la cual se suelen encontrar trazas.
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The first requirement for a rock relief is a suitable face of stone; a near-vertical cliff minimizes the work required, otherwise a sloping rock face is often cut back to give a vertical area to carve. Most of the [[ancient Near East]] was well supplied with hills and mountains offering many cliff faces. An exception was the land of [[Sumer]], where all stone had to be imported over considerable distances, and so the [[art of Mesopotamia]] only features rock relief around the edges of the region. The [[Hittites]] and ancient Persians were the most prolific makers of rock reliefs in the Near East.<ref>Canepa, 53</ref>
[[File:Naram-Sin Rock Relief at Darband-i-Gawr, Qaradagh Mountain, Sulaymaniyah. Iraq.jpg|thumb|Naram-Sin Rock Relief at Darband-i-Gawr, Qaradagh Mountain, Sulaymaniyah. Iraq]]
The form is adopted by some cultures and ignored by others. In the many [[Commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb]], 12 kilometres north of [[Beirut]], successive imperial rulers have carved memorials and inscriptions. The Ancient Egyptian, [[Neo-Assyrian]] and [[Neo-Babylonian]] rulers include relief imagery in their monuments, while the Roman and Islamic rulers do not, nor more modern ones (who erect slabs of stone carved elsewhere and fitted to the rock).<ref>Harmanşah (2014a), 95–96; Kreppner, 372–373; St. Chad Boscawen, Sir William, [http://ift.tt/2DYBYlb full map "The Monuments and Inscriptions on the Rocks at Nahr"], ''Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology'', vol 7, 1882, Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer, pages 331–352</ref>
==Egypt==
Although prehistoric engraved [[petroglyph]]s are common in Egypt, in general the form is not a very common one in [[Ancient Egyptian art]], and only possible in some parts of the country, generally those away from the main centres of population, as Abu Simbel was. There are a group of figures surrounding an image of [[Mentuhotep II]], who died in 2010 BC and was the first pharaoh of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]].<ref>Callender, in: Ian Shaw (ed), 139, ''Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', 2000, OUP, , 9780191590597</ref>
Before they were cut away and moved, the colossal figures outside the [[Abu Simbel temples]] were very high reliefs. Other sculpture outside temples cut into the rock qualifies as rock reliefs. The [[Commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb|reliefs at Nahr el-Kalb]] commemorate [[Rameses II]],<ref>Harmanşah (2014a), 95</ref> and are at the furthest reach of his empire (indeed beyond the area he reliably controlled) in modern [[Lebanon]].
==Hittites and Assyrians==
The Hittites were important producers of rock reliefs, which form a relatively large part of the [[Hittite art|few artistic remains]] they have left.<ref>Bonatz</ref> The [[Karabel relief]] of a king was seen by [[Herodotus]], who mistakenly thought it showed the Egyptian [[Pharaoh]] [[Sesostris]].<ref>Harmanşah (2014a), 88–89; [http://ift.tt/2FvnvtW Livius.org on "The relief of Sesostris" in Herodotos' ''Histories'' 2.102–103, 106]</ref> This, like many Hittite reliefs, is near a road, but actually rather hard to see from the road. There are more than a dozen sites, most over 1000 metres in elevation, overlooking plains, and typically near water. These perhaps were placed with an eye to the Hittite's relation to the landscape rather than merely as rulers' propaganda, signs of "landscape control", or border markers, as has often been thought.<ref>Harmanşah (2014a), 90–94; Ullmann, Lee Z., in Harmanşah (2014), Chapter 8; though see also Bonatz</ref> They are often at sites with a sacred significance both before and after the Hittite period, and apparently places where the divine world was considered as sometimes breaking through to the human one.<ref>Harmanşah (2014a), 92</ref>
[[File:Yazilikaya B 12erGruppe.jpg|thumb|left|Hittite deities at [[Yazılıkaya]]]]
At [[Yazılıkaya]], just outside the capital of [[Hattusa]], a series of reliefs of Hittite gods in procession decorate open-air "chambers" made by adding barriers among the natural rock formations. The site was apparently a sanctuary, and possibly a burial site, for the commemoration of the ruling dynasty's ancestors. It was perhaps a private space for the dynasty and a small group of the elite, unlike the more public wayside reliefs. The usual form of these is to show royal males carrying weapons, usually holding a spear, carrying a bow over their shoulder, with a sword at their belt. They have attributes associated with divinity, and so are shown as "god-warriors".<ref>Bonatz</ref>
The Assyrians probably took the form from the Hittites; the sites chosen for their 49 recorded reliefs often also make little sense if "signalling" to the general population was the intent, being high and remote, but often near water. The Neo-Assyrians recorded in other places, including metal reliefs on the [[Balawat Gates]] showing them being made, the carving of rock reliefs, and it has been suggested that the main intended audience was the gods, the reliefs and the inscriptions that often accompany them being almost of the nature of a "business report" submitted by the ruler.<ref>Kreppner, throughout; 368 for 49 reliefs</ref> A canal system built by the [[Neo-Assyrian]] king [[Sennacherib]] (reigned 704–681 BC) to supply water to [[Nineveh]] was marked by a number of reliefs showing the king with gods.<ref>Kreppner, 371; Malko, Helen, [http://ift.tt/1FrxMTF "Neo-Assyrian Rock Reliefs: Ideology and Landscapes of an Empire"], Metropolitan Museum, accessed 28 November 2015</ref> Other reliefs at the [[Tigris tunnel]], a cave in modern Turkey believed to be the source of the river [[Tigris]], are "almost inaccessible and invisible for humans".<ref>Kreppner, 374–375</ref> Probably built by Sennacherib's son [[Esarhaddon]], [[Shikaft-e Gulgul]] is a late example in modern Iran, apparently related to a military campaign.<ref>Kreppner, 369–370; Van der Spek, R.J., [http://ift.tt/2FvnwOw "The Assyrian Royal Rock Inscription from Shikaft-i Gulgul"], ''Iranica Antiqua'', vol XII, 1977</ref>
==Persia==
[[File:Bas relief nagsh-e-rostam al.jpg|thumb|The triumph of [[Shapur I]] over the Roman Emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]], and [[Philip the Arab]], [[Naqsh-e Rustam]].]]
[[File:IR04-08-23a.jpg|thumb|[[Taq Bostan]]; the "knight" is probably [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrow Parviz]] mounted on [[Shabdiz]]]]
The large carved rock relief, typically placed high beside a road, and near a source of water, is a common medium in Persian art, mostly used to glorify the king and proclaim Persian control over territory.<ref>Canepa, 53 and throughout. Canepa, 63–64, 76–78 on siting</ref> It begins with [[Lullubi]] and [[Elam]]ite rock reliefs, such as those at [[Kul-e Farah]] and [[Eshkaft-e Salman]] in southwest Iran, and continues under the Assyrians. The [[Behistun Inscription|Behistun relief and inscription]], made around 500 BC for [[Darius the Great]], is on a far grander scale, reflecting and proclaiming the power of the [[Achaemenid empire]].<ref>Luschey; Canepa, 55–57</ref> Persian rulers commonly boasted of their power and achievements, until the Muslim conquest removed imagery from such monuments; much later there was a small revival under the [[Qajar dynasty]].<ref>Herrmann and Curtis</ref>
Behistun is unusual in having a large and important inscription, which like the Egyptian [[Rosetta Stone]] repeats its text in three different languages, here all using [[cuneiform script]]: Old Persian, [[Elamite language|Elamite]], and [[Babylonian language|Babylonian]] (a later form of [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]).<ref>Luschey</ref> This was important in the modern understanding of these languages. Other Persian reliefs generally lack inscriptions, and the kings involved often can only be tentatively identified. The problem is helped in the case of the Sassanids by their custom of showing a different style of crown for each king, which can be identified from their coins.<ref>Herrmann and Curtis</ref>
[[Naqsh-e Rustam]] is the [[necropolis]] of the [[Achaemenid dynasty]] (500–330 BC), with four large tombs cut high into the cliff face. These have mainly architectural decoration, but the facades include large panels over the doorways, each very similar in content, with figures of the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute, with soldiers and officials. The three classes of figures are sharply differentiated in size. The entrance to each tomb is at the centre of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a [[sarcophagus]].<ref>Cotterell, 162; Canepa, 57–59, 65–68</ref> The horizontal beam of each of the tomb's facades is believed to be a replica of the entrance of the palace at [[Persepolis]].
Only one has inscriptions and the matching of the other kings to tombs is somewhat speculative; the relief figures are not intended as individualized portraits. The third from the left, identified by an inscription, is the tomb of [[Darius I|Darius I the Great]] (''c.'' 522–486 BC). The other three are believed to be those of [[Xerxes I]] (''c.'' 486–465 BC), [[Artaxerxes I]] (''c.'' 465–424 BC), and [[Darius II]] (''c.'' 423–404 BC) respectively. A fifth unfinished one might be that of Artaxerxes III, who reigned at the longest two years, but is more likely that of [[Darius III]] (''c.'' 336–330 BC), last of the Achaemenid dynasts. The tombs were looted following the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire by [[Alexander the Great]].
<ref>Cotterell, 162; Canepa, 57–59, 65–68</ref>
Well below the Achaemenid tombs, near ground level, are rock reliefs with large figures of [[Sassanian]] kings, some meeting gods, others in combat. The most famous shows the Sassanian king [[Shapur I]] on horseback, with the Roman Emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] bowing to him in submission, and [[Philip the Arab]] (an earlier emperor who paid Shapur tribute) holding Shapur's horse, while the dead Emperor [[Gordian III]], killed in battle, lies beneath it (other identifications have been suggested). This commemorates the [[Battle of Edessa]] in 260 AD, when Valerian became the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, a lasting humiliation for the Romans. The placing of these reliefs clearly suggests the Sassanid intention to link themselves with the glories of the earlier [[Achaemenid Empire]].<ref>Herrmann and Curtis; Canepa, 62, 65–68</ref> There are three further Achaemenid royal tombs with similar reliefs at [[Persepolis]], one unfinished.<ref>[http://ift.tt/2E30oKg Vanden Berghe #27–29]</ref>
The seven Sassanian reliefs, whose approximate dates range from 225 to 310 AD, show subjects including investiture scenes and battles. The earliest relief at the site is [[Elam]]ite, from about 1000 BC. About a kilometre away is [[Naqsh-e Rajab]], with a further four Sassanid rock reliefs, three celebrating kings and one a high priest. Another important Sassanid site is [[Taq Bostan]] with several reliefs including two royal investitures and a famous figure of a [[cataphract]] or Persian heavy cavalryman, about twice life size, probably representing the king [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrow Parviz]] mounted on his favourite horse [[Shabdiz]]; the pair continued to be celebrated in later Persian literature.<ref>Herrmann and Curtis; Canepa, 74–76</ref> [[Firuzabad, Fars]] and [[Bishapur]] have groups of Sassanian reliefs, the former including the oldest, a large battle scene, now badly worn.<ref>Herrmann and Curtis</ref> At [[Barm-e Delak]] a king offers a flower to his queen.
Sassanian reliefs are concentrated in the first 80 years of the dynasty, though one important set are 6th-century, and at relatively few sites, mostly in the Sassanid heartland. The later ones in particular suggest that they draw on a now-lost tradition of similar reliefs in palaces in [[stucco]]. The rock reliefs were probably coated in plaster and painted.<ref>Herrmann and Curtis</ref>
The rock reliefs of the preceding Persian [[Selucid]]s and [[Parthians]] are generally smaller and more crude, and not all direct royal commissions as the Sassanid ones clearly were.<ref>Canepa, 59–61, 68–73</ref> At Behistun an earlier relief including a lion was adapted into a reclining [[Herakles]] in a fully [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] style; he reclines on a lion skin. This was only uncovered below rubble relatively recently; an inscription dates it to 148 BC.<ref>Downey; Canepa, 59–60</ref> Other reliefs in Iran include the [[Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] king in shallow relief at [[Shikaft-e Gulgul]]; not all sites with Persian reliefs are in modern Iran.<ref>Herrmann and Curtis</ref> Qajar reliefs include a large and lively panel showing hunting at the royal hunting-ground of [[Tangeh Savashi]], and a panel, still largely with its colouring intact, at Taq Bostan showing the shah seated with attendants.
The standard catalogue of pre-Islamic Persian reliefs lists the known examples (as at 1984) as follows: [[Lullubi]] #1–4; [[Elam]] #5–19; Assyrian #20–21; Achaemenid #22–30; Late/Post-Achaemenid and Seleucid #31–35; Parthian #36–49; Sasanian #50–84; others #85–88.<ref>Vanden Berghe, Louis, ''Reliefs rupestres de l' Iran ancien'', 1983, Brussels, per [http://ift.tt/2E30oKg online summary of his list here]</ref>
==India==
[[File:Unakoti group of bas-relief sculptures, Tripura, India.jpg|thumb|[[Unakoti]] group of reliefs of [[Shiva]], [[Tripura]], India]]
Although carving into solid rock is more a feature of Indian sculpture than of any other culture, most Indian sculptures fall outside the strict definition of rock reliefs because they are either fully detached statues, or are reliefs within rock-cut or natural caves, or temples entirely cut from the living rock. In the former group are many colossal [[Jain]] figures of [[tirthankara]], and in the later Hindu and Buddhist works at the [[Elephanta Caves]], [[Ajanta Caves]], [[Ellora]] and the [[Aurangabad Caves]].<ref>Harle, chapters 9 and 10</ref> Especially at Ajanta, there are many rock reliefs in the open, around the entrances to the caves, either part of the original designs or votive sculptures added later by individual patrons.<ref>Spink, 5–6</ref>
However, there are a number of significant rock reliefs in India, with the ''[[Descent of the Ganges (Mahabalipuram)|Descent of the Ganges]]'' at [[Mahabalipuram]] the best known and perhaps the most impressive. This is a large 7th-century Hindu scene with many figures that uses the form of the rock to shape the image.<ref>Harle, 278-83</ref> The [[Anantashayi Vishnu]] is an early 9th-century horizontal relief of the reclining [[Hindu]] god [[Vishnu]] in [[Orissa, India|Orissa]], measuring in length, cut into a flat bed of rock.<ref name=Vishnu></ref><ref name= "Sah1976"></ref> while the largest standing image is of [[Gomateshwara]] in [[Southern India]].<ref name= "Senapati1972"></ref> At [[Unakoti]], [[Tripura]] there is an 11th-century group of reliefs related to [[Shiva]], and at [[Hampi]] scenes from the [[Ramayana]]. Several sites, such as [[Kalugumalai]] and the [[Samanar Hills]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], have [[Jain art|Jain]] reliefs, mostly of meditating [[tirthankara]]s.
==Buddhism==
[[File:Leshan da fo Flickr feet-head modified.jpg|thumb|The [[Tang dynasty]] [[Leshan Giant Buddha]]]]
Buddhism, originating in India, took the traditions of cave and [[rock-cut architecture]] to other parts of Asia, including the creation of rock reliefs.<ref>Sickman & Soper, 85–90</ref> In these the emphasis shifted to religious subject matter; in earlier reliefs deities had normally appeared only to show their approval of the ruler. The colossal Buddha figures are nearly all in very high relief, only still attached to the rock face at the rear. Several have or had "image houses", or buildings enclosing them, which meant that they could normally only be seen very close up, and the impressive view from further back was lost to pilgrims.
In [[Sri Lanka]] colossal Buddha figures include the [[Avukana Buddha statue]], 5th century and almost free-standing, with only a narrow strip at the back still connecting it to the cliff, and the four 12-century Buddha figures at [[Gal Vihara]]; the brick foundations for image houses can be seen here. The seven 10th-century figures at [[Buduruvagala]] are in much lower relief. There are very lively elephants carved around a temple pool at [[Isurumuniya]].<ref>Harle, 450–456</ref> Of the colossal lion gateway to the hill-palace at [[Sigiriya]], only the paws remain, the head having fallen off at some point.
The three famous ancient Buddhist sculptural sites in China are the [[Mogao Caves]],<ref>Rawson, 319. The rock at [[Dunhuang]] is a weak "gravel conglomerate", and the sculptures are finished in clay, with smaller ones being entirely clay.</ref> [[Longmen Grottoes]] (672–673 for the main group) and [[Yungang Grottoes]] (460–535), all of which have colossal Buddha statues in very high relief, cut back into huge niches in the cliff,<ref>Rawson, 320–322</ref> though the largest figure at Mogao is still enclosed by a wooden image house superstructure in front of it; this is also thought to be a portrait of the reigning empress [[Wu Zetian]]. One of the Longmen figures is effectively in a man-made cave, but can be seen from outside through a large window opened in the outer face (see gallery). Smaller rock-cut sculptures and paintings decorate the cave temples at these sites.
The [[Tang dynasty]] [[Leshan Giant Buddha]], the largest of all, was built with a superstructure covering it, which was destroyed by the Mongols. Such large figures were a novelty in Chinese art, and adapted conventions from further west.<ref>Rawson, 151–154; Sickman & Soper, 87–95, 144–147</ref> The [[Dazu Rock Carvings]] include scenes with unusually large numbers of figures, such as a famous and large scene of the Buddhist Judgement of Souls. These are set back into the cliff and the shelter has enabled them to retain their bright colours.<ref>Rawson, 322; [http://ift.tt/1zjwLuS UNESCO, World Heritage List "Dazu Rock Carvings"], accessed 27 November 2015</ref> Other Chinese Buddhist cave sites with external rock reliefs include [[Lingyin Temple]] with many small reliefs, and the [[Maijishan Grottoes]] with a main colossal group;<ref>Rawson, 319</ref> unusually for figures of such a size, they are in [[bas-relief]].
The [[Bamiyan Buddha]] figures were two standing Buddha figures of the 6th century in [[Afghanistan]] which were destroyed by the [[Taliban]] in 2001; they probably were one of the immediate influences on the Chinese sites further east on he [[Silk Road]].<ref>Sickman & Soper, 87; this conventional view may not be correct, see Rawson, 318</ref> In Japan the [[Nihon-ji]] temple includes a colossal seated Buddha completed in 1783, 31 metres tall. Japanese "Great Buddha" statues are called "[[daibutsu]]", but most are in bronze.
Sites elsewhere include [[Kbal Spean]] near [[Angkor]] in [[Cambodia]], which has both Hindu and Buddhist reliefs. These are placed in rocky shallows of the river, with water flowing over them. Large numbers of short [[lingam]]s and deities were intended to purify the water that flowed over them on its way to the city.<ref>Jessup, 122–123</ref>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Buda de Avukana - 03.jpg|[[Avukana Buddha statue]], [[Sri Lanka]], 5th century
File:Buddha Bamiyan 1963.jpg|The larger of the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]] in 1963, before it was destroyed
File:龙门-Buddha.jpg|Part of the [[Longmen Grottos]]
File:China - Yungang Grottoes 5 (135940211).jpg|No 5 at the [[Yungang Grottoes]]
File:Majishan huge sculptures 20090226.jpg|Detail of the colossal group at the [[Maijishan Grottoes]]
File:Kbal Spean - 018 Vishnu with Lingas near the Bridge (8584753052).jpg|[[Kbal Spean]], [[Vishnu]] and [[lingam]]s
File:Dazu rock carvings baoding 18 layers of hell.JPG|Details of part of the [[Dazu rock carvings]]
File:Nihonji daibutsu.jpg|The [[Nihon-ji]] [[daibutsu]], 1783
</gallery>
==Greek and Roman world==
[[File:Madara rider Izvora (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Madara Rider]] in [[Bulgaria]], cut around 700]]
The [[Hellenistic]] [[Athena relief of Sömek]] in modern [[Turkey]], with a [[Warrior relief of Efrenk|warrior nearby]], are two of the relatively few examples from the ancient Greek and Roman worlds.<ref>Serra Durugönül: ''Die Felsreliefs im Rauhen Kilikien''. (BAR International Series, 511). BAR, Oxford 1989, , S. 50–51, 128–137.</ref> Nearby at [[Adamkayalar]] there are a series of standing figures in classical niches, probably funerary memorials of the 2nd century AD; similar figures are found at [[Kanlidivane]]. All these sites are from former Hittite and [[Neo-Hittite]] territories. The cliff at Behistun, as well as Darius's famous relief, has a [[Selucid]] reclining [[Hercules]] of 148 BC with a Greek inscription.<ref>Downey</ref> Also from the fringes of the Roman world, the famous rock-cut tombs of [[Petra, Jordan]] include figurative elements, mostly now battered by iconoclasm, for example the best-known tomb, known as [[Al-Khazneh|The Treasury]].<ref>[[Jessica Rawson|Rawson, Jessica]], ''Chinese Ornament: The Lotus and the Dragon'', 1984, pp. 43–44, British Museum Publications, </ref>
==Medieval Europe==
Standing alone in early medieval Europe is the [[Madara Rider]] in [[Bulgaria]], cut around 700 above the palace of a ruler of the [[Bulgars]]. It shows a rider, about double life-size, spearing a lion, with a dog running behind him.<ref>[http://ift.tt/2E3T5lG UNESCO, World Heritage Sites List], "Madara Rider"</ref> Though the medium of rock relief is without parallels anywhere near, this motif, known as the [[Thracian horseman]], had long been common on stelae in the region, and such motifs appear in metalwork,<ref>Lovata, Troy R, Olton, Elizabeth (eds), ''Understanding Graffiti: Multidisciplinary Studies from Prehistory to the Present'', 83–85, 2015, Left Coast Press, , 9781611328684</ref> such as the ewer with a mounted warrior and his prisoner in the enigmatic [[Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]], and are common in Sasanian silver bowls, which may well have been traded as far as the Balkans.
The (probably) 12th-century [[Externsteine relief]] in southern Germany measures 4.8 m high by 3.7 m wide. It shows the [[Descent from the Cross]] of Jesus, a standard scene from Christian art, with a total of ten figures.<ref name="Booklet"></ref> The circumstances of its making remain unclear, and despite the extensive tradition of medieval reliefs on buildings, making them on natural rock formations at a large size remained very rare.
==Americas==
[[File:Sayhuite Archaeological site - rock sculpture.jpg|thumb|The Inca [[Sayhuite]] Stone]]
Pre-Columbian rock reliefs, mostly using a low relief, include those at [[Chalcatzingo]] in Mexico, probably from around 900–700 BC. These reflect [[Olmec]] style, though the city was controlled by local rulers. They are on vertical cliff faces, and comparable in style and subject matter to stelae and architectural reliefs in the same tradition.<ref>[http://ift.tt/2FvnAxK "Monument 1: Relief of "El Rey" (The King)"], and [http://ift.tt/2E4j2kK Chalcatzingo index page]; "Art 447H. Mesoamerican. Olmec", Cal State</ref>
The [[Inca]] tradition is very distinctive; they carved rock with mainly horizontal representations of landscapes as one form of [[huaca]]; the most famous are the [[Sayhuite]] Stone and the Quinku rock. These show a landscape, but also many animals; it is not clear if the landscapes represent a real place or are imaginary. These permanent works formed part of a wider Inca tradition of visualizing and modelling landscapes, often accompanied by rituals.<ref>Gartner, William Gustav, [http://ift.tt/2FwZ3bv "Mapmaking in the Central Andes" PDF], pp. 285–289</ref>
==Modernas==
Modern rock reliefs tend to be colossal, at several times life-size, and are usually memorials of some sort. In America, [[Mount Rushmore]] is mostly in a very high relief, and the [[Stone Mountain]] relief commemorating three [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] generals in bas-relief. The [[rock sculpture of Decebalus]] in [[Romania]] is a huge face on an outcrop above the [[Danube]], begun in 1994.<ref>[http://ift.tt/2E2lPLe Foundation website]</ref> The ''[[Lion Monument]]'' or ''Lion of Lucerne'', in [[Lucerne]], [[Switzerland]], is one of the most artistically successful, designed by [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]] and carved in 1820–21 by Lukas Ahorn, as a memorial for the [[Swiss Guard]]s who were massacred in 1792 during the [[French Revolution]].<ref>[http://ift.tt/1zrdWms Lion Monument, Lucerne], ''All About Switzerland'' travelguide. Accessed 13 November 2015</ref>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
Image:IvrizRelief.JPG|The Hittite [[İvriz relief]]; King Warpalawas (right) before the god Tarhunzas
File:India - Mamallapuram - 030 - Arjunas Penance Bas Relief (490988077).jpg|''[[Descent of the Ganges (Mahabalipuram)|Descent of the Ganges]]'' at [[Mahabalipuram]], 7th century
File:Naqshe Rajab Darafsh Ordibehesht 93 (2).JPG|Sassanian investiture relief of [[Shapur I]] at [[Naqsh-e Rajabat]]
File:Detmold Externsteine 1993 5 Relief.jpg|12th-century [[Externsteine relief]], Germany, with the [[Descent from the Cross]] of Jesus
File:6308 - Luzern - Löwendenkmal.JPG|The ''[[Lion Monument]]'' of [[Lucerne]]
</gallery>
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==Referencias==
==Bibliografía==
*Bonatz, Dominik, "Religious Representation of Political Power in the Hittite Empire", in ''Representations of Political Power: Case Histories from Times of Change and Dissolving Order in the Ancient Near East'', eds, Marlies Heinz, Marian H. Feldman, 2007, Eisenbrauns, , 9781575061351, [http://ift.tt/2DY4qUf google books]
*Canepa, Matthew P., "Topographies of Power, Theorizing the Visual, Spatial and Ritual Contexts of Rock Reliefs in Ancient Iran", in Harmanşah (2014), [http://ift.tt/2FvnCFS google books]
*Cotterell, Arthur (ed), ''The Penguin Encyclopedia of Classical Civilizations'', 1993, Penguin,
*Downey, S.B., "Art in Iran, iv., Parthian Art", ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', 1986, [http://ift.tt/2E3Zz3G Online text]
*Harle, J.C., ''The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent'', 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art,
*Harmanşah, Ömür (2014a), "Rock Reliefs are Never Finished", in ''Place, Memory, and Healing: An Archaeology of Anatolian Rock Monuments'', 2014, Routledge, , 9781317575726, [http://ift.tt/2Fy2izp google books]
*Harmanşah, Ömür (ed) (2014), ''Of Rocks and Water: An Archaeology of Place'', 2014, Oxbow Books, , 9781782976745
*Herrmann, G, and Curtis, V.S., "Sasanian Rock Reliefs", ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', 2002, [http://ift.tt/2DYBXxD Online text]
*Jessup, Helen Ibbetson, ''Art and Architecture of Cambodia'', 2004, Thames & Hudson (World of Art),
*Kreppner, Florian Janoscha, "Public Space in Nature: The Case of Neo-Assyrian Rock-Reliefs", ''Altorientalische Forschungen'', 29/2 (2002): 367–383, [http://ift.tt/2FvnEO0 online at Academia.edu]
*Ledering, Joan, [http://ift.tt/2DZjf93 "Sasanian Rock Reliefs"], http://www.livius.org
*Luschey, Heinz, "Bisotun ii. Archeology", ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', 2013, [http://ift.tt/2FvnFl2 Online text]
*Rawson, Jessica (ed). ''The British Museum Book of Chinese Art'', 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press,
*Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L. & Soper A., ''The Art and Architecture of China'', Pelican History of Art, 3rd ed 1971, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), LOC 70-125675
*Spink, Walter M., ''Ajanta: History and Development Volume 5: Cave by Cave'', 2006, Brill, Leiden, , [http://ift.tt/2DZE1oT online]
[[Category:Formas de escultura]]
[[Category:Arquitectura rupestre]]
[[File:S10.08 Abu Simbel, image 9503.jpg|thumb|Dos de los relieves en los [[templos de Abu Simbel]], antes de su traslado.]]
Un '''relieve en roca''' es una [[Relieve (arte)|escultura en relieve]] tallada en "roca viva" como por ejemplo un acantilado, en vez de sobre un bloque de roca desprendido de la montaña. Constituyen un tipo de arte de roca, y a veces se les encuentra formando parte de conjuntos arquitectónicos excavados en la roca.<ref>Harmanşah (2014), 5–6</ref> Sin embargo, suelen ser omitidos en la mayoría de los tratados sobre arte en roca, los cuales se concentran en tallas y pinturas realizados por pueblos prehistóricos. Algunas de estos trabajos aprovechan los contornos naturales de la roca y los utilizan para definir una imagen, pero no constituyen relieves hechos por el hombre. Numerosas culturas han realizado relieves en roca a lo largo de la historia del hombre, y ocuparon un sitio importante en el arte del [[Antiguo Oriente Próximo]].<ref>Harmanşah (2014), 5–6; Canepa, 53</ref> Por lo general los relieves en roca son de grandes dimensiones, ya que es la forma que se puedan destacar en el entorno al aire libre. Muchas figuras son varias veces más grandes que el tamaño natural.
Desde un punto de vista estilístico por lo general están relacionados con otros tipos de escultura de la cultura y periodo aplicable, y excepto por casos de los hititas y persas por lo general se los analiza como parte de un tema más amplio.<ref>for example by Rawson and Sickman & Soper</ref> Los relieves en superficies casi verticales son los más comunes, aunque también se han encontrado relieves sobre superficies horizontales. Por lo general el término no comprende las tallas en relieve dentro de cuevas, sean naturales o excavadas por el hombre, las cuales son frecuentes en la arquitectura tallada en roca de India. Las formaciones naturales de roca que han sido talladas en forma de estatuas, tal como la famosa [[Gran Esfinge de Guiza]], por lo general son excluidas. Los relieves de grandes trozos de roca que se han conservado en su posición natural original, tal como el [[Relieve de Imamkullu|relieve hitita de İmamkullu]], pertenecen a esta categoría, pero las rocas más pequeñas se las suele clasificar como [[Estela (monumento)|estela]]s u [[ortostato]]s excavados. Es probable que muchos de los relieves antiguos originalmente estuvieran pintados, sobre una cubierta de yeso; de la cual se suelen encontrar trazas.
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The first requirement for a rock relief is a suitable face of stone; a near-vertical cliff minimizes the work required, otherwise a sloping rock face is often cut back to give a vertical area to carve. Most of the [[ancient Near East]] was well supplied with hills and mountains offering many cliff faces. An exception was the land of [[Sumer]], where all stone had to be imported over considerable distances, and so the [[art of Mesopotamia]] only features rock relief around the edges of the region. The [[Hittites]] and ancient Persians were the most prolific makers of rock reliefs in the Near East.<ref>Canepa, 53</ref>
[[File:Naram-Sin Rock Relief at Darband-i-Gawr, Qaradagh Mountain, Sulaymaniyah. Iraq.jpg|thumb|Naram-Sin Rock Relief at Darband-i-Gawr, Qaradagh Mountain, Sulaymaniyah. Iraq]]
The form is adopted by some cultures and ignored by others. In the many [[Commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb]], 12 kilometres north of [[Beirut]], successive imperial rulers have carved memorials and inscriptions. The Ancient Egyptian, [[Neo-Assyrian]] and [[Neo-Babylonian]] rulers include relief imagery in their monuments, while the Roman and Islamic rulers do not, nor more modern ones (who erect slabs of stone carved elsewhere and fitted to the rock).<ref>Harmanşah (2014a), 95–96; Kreppner, 372–373; St. Chad Boscawen, Sir William, [http://ift.tt/2DYBYlb full map "The Monuments and Inscriptions on the Rocks at Nahr"], ''Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology'', vol 7, 1882, Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer, pages 331–352</ref>
==Egypt==
Although prehistoric engraved [[petroglyph]]s are common in Egypt, in general the form is not a very common one in [[Ancient Egyptian art]], and only possible in some parts of the country, generally those away from the main centres of population, as Abu Simbel was. There are a group of figures surrounding an image of [[Mentuhotep II]], who died in 2010 BC and was the first pharaoh of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]].<ref>Callender, in: Ian Shaw (ed), 139, ''Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', 2000, OUP, , 9780191590597</ref>
Before they were cut away and moved, the colossal figures outside the [[Abu Simbel temples]] were very high reliefs. Other sculpture outside temples cut into the rock qualifies as rock reliefs. The [[Commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb|reliefs at Nahr el-Kalb]] commemorate [[Rameses II]],<ref>Harmanşah (2014a), 95</ref> and are at the furthest reach of his empire (indeed beyond the area he reliably controlled) in modern [[Lebanon]].
==Hittites and Assyrians==
The Hittites were important producers of rock reliefs, which form a relatively large part of the [[Hittite art|few artistic remains]] they have left.<ref>Bonatz</ref> The [[Karabel relief]] of a king was seen by [[Herodotus]], who mistakenly thought it showed the Egyptian [[Pharaoh]] [[Sesostris]].<ref>Harmanşah (2014a), 88–89; [http://ift.tt/2FvnvtW Livius.org on "The relief of Sesostris" in Herodotos' ''Histories'' 2.102–103, 106]</ref> This, like many Hittite reliefs, is near a road, but actually rather hard to see from the road. There are more than a dozen sites, most over 1000 metres in elevation, overlooking plains, and typically near water. These perhaps were placed with an eye to the Hittite's relation to the landscape rather than merely as rulers' propaganda, signs of "landscape control", or border markers, as has often been thought.<ref>Harmanşah (2014a), 90–94; Ullmann, Lee Z., in Harmanşah (2014), Chapter 8; though see also Bonatz</ref> They are often at sites with a sacred significance both before and after the Hittite period, and apparently places where the divine world was considered as sometimes breaking through to the human one.<ref>Harmanşah (2014a), 92</ref>
[[File:Yazilikaya B 12erGruppe.jpg|thumb|left|Hittite deities at [[Yazılıkaya]]]]
At [[Yazılıkaya]], just outside the capital of [[Hattusa]], a series of reliefs of Hittite gods in procession decorate open-air "chambers" made by adding barriers among the natural rock formations. The site was apparently a sanctuary, and possibly a burial site, for the commemoration of the ruling dynasty's ancestors. It was perhaps a private space for the dynasty and a small group of the elite, unlike the more public wayside reliefs. The usual form of these is to show royal males carrying weapons, usually holding a spear, carrying a bow over their shoulder, with a sword at their belt. They have attributes associated with divinity, and so are shown as "god-warriors".<ref>Bonatz</ref>
The Assyrians probably took the form from the Hittites; the sites chosen for their 49 recorded reliefs often also make little sense if "signalling" to the general population was the intent, being high and remote, but often near water. The Neo-Assyrians recorded in other places, including metal reliefs on the [[Balawat Gates]] showing them being made, the carving of rock reliefs, and it has been suggested that the main intended audience was the gods, the reliefs and the inscriptions that often accompany them being almost of the nature of a "business report" submitted by the ruler.<ref>Kreppner, throughout; 368 for 49 reliefs</ref> A canal system built by the [[Neo-Assyrian]] king [[Sennacherib]] (reigned 704–681 BC) to supply water to [[Nineveh]] was marked by a number of reliefs showing the king with gods.<ref>Kreppner, 371; Malko, Helen, [http://ift.tt/1FrxMTF "Neo-Assyrian Rock Reliefs: Ideology and Landscapes of an Empire"], Metropolitan Museum, accessed 28 November 2015</ref> Other reliefs at the [[Tigris tunnel]], a cave in modern Turkey believed to be the source of the river [[Tigris]], are "almost inaccessible and invisible for humans".<ref>Kreppner, 374–375</ref> Probably built by Sennacherib's son [[Esarhaddon]], [[Shikaft-e Gulgul]] is a late example in modern Iran, apparently related to a military campaign.<ref>Kreppner, 369–370; Van der Spek, R.J., [http://ift.tt/2FvnwOw "The Assyrian Royal Rock Inscription from Shikaft-i Gulgul"], ''Iranica Antiqua'', vol XII, 1977</ref>
==Persia==
[[File:Bas relief nagsh-e-rostam al.jpg|thumb|The triumph of [[Shapur I]] over the Roman Emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]], and [[Philip the Arab]], [[Naqsh-e Rustam]].]]
[[File:IR04-08-23a.jpg|thumb|[[Taq Bostan]]; the "knight" is probably [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrow Parviz]] mounted on [[Shabdiz]]]]
The large carved rock relief, typically placed high beside a road, and near a source of water, is a common medium in Persian art, mostly used to glorify the king and proclaim Persian control over territory.<ref>Canepa, 53 and throughout. Canepa, 63–64, 76–78 on siting</ref> It begins with [[Lullubi]] and [[Elam]]ite rock reliefs, such as those at [[Kul-e Farah]] and [[Eshkaft-e Salman]] in southwest Iran, and continues under the Assyrians. The [[Behistun Inscription|Behistun relief and inscription]], made around 500 BC for [[Darius the Great]], is on a far grander scale, reflecting and proclaiming the power of the [[Achaemenid empire]].<ref>Luschey; Canepa, 55–57</ref> Persian rulers commonly boasted of their power and achievements, until the Muslim conquest removed imagery from such monuments; much later there was a small revival under the [[Qajar dynasty]].<ref>Herrmann and Curtis</ref>
Behistun is unusual in having a large and important inscription, which like the Egyptian [[Rosetta Stone]] repeats its text in three different languages, here all using [[cuneiform script]]: Old Persian, [[Elamite language|Elamite]], and [[Babylonian language|Babylonian]] (a later form of [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]).<ref>Luschey</ref> This was important in the modern understanding of these languages. Other Persian reliefs generally lack inscriptions, and the kings involved often can only be tentatively identified. The problem is helped in the case of the Sassanids by their custom of showing a different style of crown for each king, which can be identified from their coins.<ref>Herrmann and Curtis</ref>
[[Naqsh-e Rustam]] is the [[necropolis]] of the [[Achaemenid dynasty]] (500–330 BC), with four large tombs cut high into the cliff face. These have mainly architectural decoration, but the facades include large panels over the doorways, each very similar in content, with figures of the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute, with soldiers and officials. The three classes of figures are sharply differentiated in size. The entrance to each tomb is at the centre of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a [[sarcophagus]].<ref>Cotterell, 162; Canepa, 57–59, 65–68</ref> The horizontal beam of each of the tomb's facades is believed to be a replica of the entrance of the palace at [[Persepolis]].
Only one has inscriptions and the matching of the other kings to tombs is somewhat speculative; the relief figures are not intended as individualized portraits. The third from the left, identified by an inscription, is the tomb of [[Darius I|Darius I the Great]] (''c.'' 522–486 BC). The other three are believed to be those of [[Xerxes I]] (''c.'' 486–465 BC), [[Artaxerxes I]] (''c.'' 465–424 BC), and [[Darius II]] (''c.'' 423–404 BC) respectively. A fifth unfinished one might be that of Artaxerxes III, who reigned at the longest two years, but is more likely that of [[Darius III]] (''c.'' 336–330 BC), last of the Achaemenid dynasts. The tombs were looted following the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire by [[Alexander the Great]].
<ref>Cotterell, 162; Canepa, 57–59, 65–68</ref>
Well below the Achaemenid tombs, near ground level, are rock reliefs with large figures of [[Sassanian]] kings, some meeting gods, others in combat. The most famous shows the Sassanian king [[Shapur I]] on horseback, with the Roman Emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] bowing to him in submission, and [[Philip the Arab]] (an earlier emperor who paid Shapur tribute) holding Shapur's horse, while the dead Emperor [[Gordian III]], killed in battle, lies beneath it (other identifications have been suggested). This commemorates the [[Battle of Edessa]] in 260 AD, when Valerian became the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, a lasting humiliation for the Romans. The placing of these reliefs clearly suggests the Sassanid intention to link themselves with the glories of the earlier [[Achaemenid Empire]].<ref>Herrmann and Curtis; Canepa, 62, 65–68</ref> There are three further Achaemenid royal tombs with similar reliefs at [[Persepolis]], one unfinished.<ref>[http://ift.tt/2E30oKg Vanden Berghe #27–29]</ref>
The seven Sassanian reliefs, whose approximate dates range from 225 to 310 AD, show subjects including investiture scenes and battles. The earliest relief at the site is [[Elam]]ite, from about 1000 BC. About a kilometre away is [[Naqsh-e Rajab]], with a further four Sassanid rock reliefs, three celebrating kings and one a high priest. Another important Sassanid site is [[Taq Bostan]] with several reliefs including two royal investitures and a famous figure of a [[cataphract]] or Persian heavy cavalryman, about twice life size, probably representing the king [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrow Parviz]] mounted on his favourite horse [[Shabdiz]]; the pair continued to be celebrated in later Persian literature.<ref>Herrmann and Curtis; Canepa, 74–76</ref> [[Firuzabad, Fars]] and [[Bishapur]] have groups of Sassanian reliefs, the former including the oldest, a large battle scene, now badly worn.<ref>Herrmann and Curtis</ref> At [[Barm-e Delak]] a king offers a flower to his queen.
Sassanian reliefs are concentrated in the first 80 years of the dynasty, though one important set are 6th-century, and at relatively few sites, mostly in the Sassanid heartland. The later ones in particular suggest that they draw on a now-lost tradition of similar reliefs in palaces in [[stucco]]. The rock reliefs were probably coated in plaster and painted.<ref>Herrmann and Curtis</ref>
The rock reliefs of the preceding Persian [[Selucid]]s and [[Parthians]] are generally smaller and more crude, and not all direct royal commissions as the Sassanid ones clearly were.<ref>Canepa, 59–61, 68–73</ref> At Behistun an earlier relief including a lion was adapted into a reclining [[Herakles]] in a fully [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] style; he reclines on a lion skin. This was only uncovered below rubble relatively recently; an inscription dates it to 148 BC.<ref>Downey; Canepa, 59–60</ref> Other reliefs in Iran include the [[Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] king in shallow relief at [[Shikaft-e Gulgul]]; not all sites with Persian reliefs are in modern Iran.<ref>Herrmann and Curtis</ref> Qajar reliefs include a large and lively panel showing hunting at the royal hunting-ground of [[Tangeh Savashi]], and a panel, still largely with its colouring intact, at Taq Bostan showing the shah seated with attendants.
The standard catalogue of pre-Islamic Persian reliefs lists the known examples (as at 1984) as follows: [[Lullubi]] #1–4; [[Elam]] #5–19; Assyrian #20–21; Achaemenid #22–30; Late/Post-Achaemenid and Seleucid #31–35; Parthian #36–49; Sasanian #50–84; others #85–88.<ref>Vanden Berghe, Louis, ''Reliefs rupestres de l' Iran ancien'', 1983, Brussels, per [http://ift.tt/2E30oKg online summary of his list here]</ref>
==India==
[[File:Unakoti group of bas-relief sculptures, Tripura, India.jpg|thumb|[[Unakoti]] group of reliefs of [[Shiva]], [[Tripura]], India]]
Although carving into solid rock is more a feature of Indian sculpture than of any other culture, most Indian sculptures fall outside the strict definition of rock reliefs because they are either fully detached statues, or are reliefs within rock-cut or natural caves, or temples entirely cut from the living rock. In the former group are many colossal [[Jain]] figures of [[tirthankara]], and in the later Hindu and Buddhist works at the [[Elephanta Caves]], [[Ajanta Caves]], [[Ellora]] and the [[Aurangabad Caves]].<ref>Harle, chapters 9 and 10</ref> Especially at Ajanta, there are many rock reliefs in the open, around the entrances to the caves, either part of the original designs or votive sculptures added later by individual patrons.<ref>Spink, 5–6</ref>
However, there are a number of significant rock reliefs in India, with the ''[[Descent of the Ganges (Mahabalipuram)|Descent of the Ganges]]'' at [[Mahabalipuram]] the best known and perhaps the most impressive. This is a large 7th-century Hindu scene with many figures that uses the form of the rock to shape the image.<ref>Harle, 278-83</ref> The [[Anantashayi Vishnu]] is an early 9th-century horizontal relief of the reclining [[Hindu]] god [[Vishnu]] in [[Orissa, India|Orissa]], measuring in length, cut into a flat bed of rock.<ref name=Vishnu></ref><ref name= "Sah1976"></ref> while the largest standing image is of [[Gomateshwara]] in [[Southern India]].<ref name= "Senapati1972"></ref> At [[Unakoti]], [[Tripura]] there is an 11th-century group of reliefs related to [[Shiva]], and at [[Hampi]] scenes from the [[Ramayana]]. Several sites, such as [[Kalugumalai]] and the [[Samanar Hills]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], have [[Jain art|Jain]] reliefs, mostly of meditating [[tirthankara]]s.
==Buddhism==
[[File:Leshan da fo Flickr feet-head modified.jpg|thumb|The [[Tang dynasty]] [[Leshan Giant Buddha]]]]
Buddhism, originating in India, took the traditions of cave and [[rock-cut architecture]] to other parts of Asia, including the creation of rock reliefs.<ref>Sickman & Soper, 85–90</ref> In these the emphasis shifted to religious subject matter; in earlier reliefs deities had normally appeared only to show their approval of the ruler. The colossal Buddha figures are nearly all in very high relief, only still attached to the rock face at the rear. Several have or had "image houses", or buildings enclosing them, which meant that they could normally only be seen very close up, and the impressive view from further back was lost to pilgrims.
In [[Sri Lanka]] colossal Buddha figures include the [[Avukana Buddha statue]], 5th century and almost free-standing, with only a narrow strip at the back still connecting it to the cliff, and the four 12-century Buddha figures at [[Gal Vihara]]; the brick foundations for image houses can be seen here. The seven 10th-century figures at [[Buduruvagala]] are in much lower relief. There are very lively elephants carved around a temple pool at [[Isurumuniya]].<ref>Harle, 450–456</ref> Of the colossal lion gateway to the hill-palace at [[Sigiriya]], only the paws remain, the head having fallen off at some point.
The three famous ancient Buddhist sculptural sites in China are the [[Mogao Caves]],<ref>Rawson, 319. The rock at [[Dunhuang]] is a weak "gravel conglomerate", and the sculptures are finished in clay, with smaller ones being entirely clay.</ref> [[Longmen Grottoes]] (672–673 for the main group) and [[Yungang Grottoes]] (460–535), all of which have colossal Buddha statues in very high relief, cut back into huge niches in the cliff,<ref>Rawson, 320–322</ref> though the largest figure at Mogao is still enclosed by a wooden image house superstructure in front of it; this is also thought to be a portrait of the reigning empress [[Wu Zetian]]. One of the Longmen figures is effectively in a man-made cave, but can be seen from outside through a large window opened in the outer face (see gallery). Smaller rock-cut sculptures and paintings decorate the cave temples at these sites.
The [[Tang dynasty]] [[Leshan Giant Buddha]], the largest of all, was built with a superstructure covering it, which was destroyed by the Mongols. Such large figures were a novelty in Chinese art, and adapted conventions from further west.<ref>Rawson, 151–154; Sickman & Soper, 87–95, 144–147</ref> The [[Dazu Rock Carvings]] include scenes with unusually large numbers of figures, such as a famous and large scene of the Buddhist Judgement of Souls. These are set back into the cliff and the shelter has enabled them to retain their bright colours.<ref>Rawson, 322; [http://ift.tt/1zjwLuS UNESCO, World Heritage List "Dazu Rock Carvings"], accessed 27 November 2015</ref> Other Chinese Buddhist cave sites with external rock reliefs include [[Lingyin Temple]] with many small reliefs, and the [[Maijishan Grottoes]] with a main colossal group;<ref>Rawson, 319</ref> unusually for figures of such a size, they are in [[bas-relief]].
The [[Bamiyan Buddha]] figures were two standing Buddha figures of the 6th century in [[Afghanistan]] which were destroyed by the [[Taliban]] in 2001; they probably were one of the immediate influences on the Chinese sites further east on he [[Silk Road]].<ref>Sickman & Soper, 87; this conventional view may not be correct, see Rawson, 318</ref> In Japan the [[Nihon-ji]] temple includes a colossal seated Buddha completed in 1783, 31 metres tall. Japanese "Great Buddha" statues are called "[[daibutsu]]", but most are in bronze.
Sites elsewhere include [[Kbal Spean]] near [[Angkor]] in [[Cambodia]], which has both Hindu and Buddhist reliefs. These are placed in rocky shallows of the river, with water flowing over them. Large numbers of short [[lingam]]s and deities were intended to purify the water that flowed over them on its way to the city.<ref>Jessup, 122–123</ref>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Buda de Avukana - 03.jpg|[[Avukana Buddha statue]], [[Sri Lanka]], 5th century
File:Buddha Bamiyan 1963.jpg|The larger of the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]] in 1963, before it was destroyed
File:龙门-Buddha.jpg|Part of the [[Longmen Grottos]]
File:China - Yungang Grottoes 5 (135940211).jpg|No 5 at the [[Yungang Grottoes]]
File:Majishan huge sculptures 20090226.jpg|Detail of the colossal group at the [[Maijishan Grottoes]]
File:Kbal Spean - 018 Vishnu with Lingas near the Bridge (8584753052).jpg|[[Kbal Spean]], [[Vishnu]] and [[lingam]]s
File:Dazu rock carvings baoding 18 layers of hell.JPG|Details of part of the [[Dazu rock carvings]]
File:Nihonji daibutsu.jpg|The [[Nihon-ji]] [[daibutsu]], 1783
</gallery>
==Greek and Roman world==
[[File:Madara rider Izvora (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Madara Rider]] in [[Bulgaria]], cut around 700]]
The [[Hellenistic]] [[Athena relief of Sömek]] in modern [[Turkey]], with a [[Warrior relief of Efrenk|warrior nearby]], are two of the relatively few examples from the ancient Greek and Roman worlds.<ref>Serra Durugönül: ''Die Felsreliefs im Rauhen Kilikien''. (BAR International Series, 511). BAR, Oxford 1989, , S. 50–51, 128–137.</ref> Nearby at [[Adamkayalar]] there are a series of standing figures in classical niches, probably funerary memorials of the 2nd century AD; similar figures are found at [[Kanlidivane]]. All these sites are from former Hittite and [[Neo-Hittite]] territories. The cliff at Behistun, as well as Darius's famous relief, has a [[Selucid]] reclining [[Hercules]] of 148 BC with a Greek inscription.<ref>Downey</ref> Also from the fringes of the Roman world, the famous rock-cut tombs of [[Petra, Jordan]] include figurative elements, mostly now battered by iconoclasm, for example the best-known tomb, known as [[Al-Khazneh|The Treasury]].<ref>[[Jessica Rawson|Rawson, Jessica]], ''Chinese Ornament: The Lotus and the Dragon'', 1984, pp. 43–44, British Museum Publications, </ref>
==Medieval Europe==
Standing alone in early medieval Europe is the [[Madara Rider]] in [[Bulgaria]], cut around 700 above the palace of a ruler of the [[Bulgars]]. It shows a rider, about double life-size, spearing a lion, with a dog running behind him.<ref>[http://ift.tt/2E3T5lG UNESCO, World Heritage Sites List], "Madara Rider"</ref> Though the medium of rock relief is without parallels anywhere near, this motif, known as the [[Thracian horseman]], had long been common on stelae in the region, and such motifs appear in metalwork,<ref>Lovata, Troy R, Olton, Elizabeth (eds), ''Understanding Graffiti: Multidisciplinary Studies from Prehistory to the Present'', 83–85, 2015, Left Coast Press, , 9781611328684</ref> such as the ewer with a mounted warrior and his prisoner in the enigmatic [[Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós]], and are common in Sasanian silver bowls, which may well have been traded as far as the Balkans.
The (probably) 12th-century [[Externsteine relief]] in southern Germany measures 4.8 m high by 3.7 m wide. It shows the [[Descent from the Cross]] of Jesus, a standard scene from Christian art, with a total of ten figures.<ref name="Booklet"></ref> The circumstances of its making remain unclear, and despite the extensive tradition of medieval reliefs on buildings, making them on natural rock formations at a large size remained very rare.
==Americas==
[[File:Sayhuite Archaeological site - rock sculpture.jpg|thumb|The Inca [[Sayhuite]] Stone]]
Pre-Columbian rock reliefs, mostly using a low relief, include those at [[Chalcatzingo]] in Mexico, probably from around 900–700 BC. These reflect [[Olmec]] style, though the city was controlled by local rulers. They are on vertical cliff faces, and comparable in style and subject matter to stelae and architectural reliefs in the same tradition.<ref>[http://ift.tt/2FvnAxK "Monument 1: Relief of "El Rey" (The King)"], and [http://ift.tt/2E4j2kK Chalcatzingo index page]; "Art 447H. Mesoamerican. Olmec", Cal State</ref>
The [[Inca]] tradition is very distinctive; they carved rock with mainly horizontal representations of landscapes as one form of [[huaca]]; the most famous are the [[Sayhuite]] Stone and the Quinku rock. These show a landscape, but also many animals; it is not clear if the landscapes represent a real place or are imaginary. These permanent works formed part of a wider Inca tradition of visualizing and modelling landscapes, often accompanied by rituals.<ref>Gartner, William Gustav, [http://ift.tt/2FwZ3bv "Mapmaking in the Central Andes" PDF], pp. 285–289</ref>
==Modernas==
Modern rock reliefs tend to be colossal, at several times life-size, and are usually memorials of some sort. In America, [[Mount Rushmore]] is mostly in a very high relief, and the [[Stone Mountain]] relief commemorating three [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] generals in bas-relief. The [[rock sculpture of Decebalus]] in [[Romania]] is a huge face on an outcrop above the [[Danube]], begun in 1994.<ref>[http://ift.tt/2E2lPLe Foundation website]</ref> The ''[[Lion Monument]]'' or ''Lion of Lucerne'', in [[Lucerne]], [[Switzerland]], is one of the most artistically successful, designed by [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]] and carved in 1820–21 by Lukas Ahorn, as a memorial for the [[Swiss Guard]]s who were massacred in 1792 during the [[French Revolution]].<ref>[http://ift.tt/1zrdWms Lion Monument, Lucerne], ''All About Switzerland'' travelguide. Accessed 13 November 2015</ref>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
Image:IvrizRelief.JPG|The Hittite [[İvriz relief]]; King Warpalawas (right) before the god Tarhunzas
File:India - Mamallapuram - 030 - Arjunas Penance Bas Relief (490988077).jpg|''[[Descent of the Ganges (Mahabalipuram)|Descent of the Ganges]]'' at [[Mahabalipuram]], 7th century
File:Naqshe Rajab Darafsh Ordibehesht 93 (2).JPG|Sassanian investiture relief of [[Shapur I]] at [[Naqsh-e Rajabat]]
File:Detmold Externsteine 1993 5 Relief.jpg|12th-century [[Externsteine relief]], Germany, with the [[Descent from the Cross]] of Jesus
File:6308 - Luzern - Löwendenkmal.JPG|The ''[[Lion Monument]]'' of [[Lucerne]]
</gallery>
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==Referencias==
==Bibliografía==
*Bonatz, Dominik, "Religious Representation of Political Power in the Hittite Empire", in ''Representations of Political Power: Case Histories from Times of Change and Dissolving Order in the Ancient Near East'', eds, Marlies Heinz, Marian H. Feldman, 2007, Eisenbrauns, , 9781575061351, [http://ift.tt/2DY4qUf google books]
*Canepa, Matthew P., "Topographies of Power, Theorizing the Visual, Spatial and Ritual Contexts of Rock Reliefs in Ancient Iran", in Harmanşah (2014), [http://ift.tt/2FvnCFS google books]
*Cotterell, Arthur (ed), ''The Penguin Encyclopedia of Classical Civilizations'', 1993, Penguin,
*Downey, S.B., "Art in Iran, iv., Parthian Art", ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', 1986, [http://ift.tt/2E3Zz3G Online text]
*Harle, J.C., ''The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent'', 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art,
*Harmanşah, Ömür (2014a), "Rock Reliefs are Never Finished", in ''Place, Memory, and Healing: An Archaeology of Anatolian Rock Monuments'', 2014, Routledge, , 9781317575726, [http://ift.tt/2Fy2izp google books]
*Harmanşah, Ömür (ed) (2014), ''Of Rocks and Water: An Archaeology of Place'', 2014, Oxbow Books, , 9781782976745
*Herrmann, G, and Curtis, V.S., "Sasanian Rock Reliefs", ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', 2002, [http://ift.tt/2DYBXxD Online text]
*Jessup, Helen Ibbetson, ''Art and Architecture of Cambodia'', 2004, Thames & Hudson (World of Art),
*Kreppner, Florian Janoscha, "Public Space in Nature: The Case of Neo-Assyrian Rock-Reliefs", ''Altorientalische Forschungen'', 29/2 (2002): 367–383, [http://ift.tt/2FvnEO0 online at Academia.edu]
*Ledering, Joan, [http://ift.tt/2DZjf93 "Sasanian Rock Reliefs"], http://www.livius.org
*Luschey, Heinz, "Bisotun ii. Archeology", ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', 2013, [http://ift.tt/2FvnFl2 Online text]
*Rawson, Jessica (ed). ''The British Museum Book of Chinese Art'', 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press,
*Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L. & Soper A., ''The Art and Architecture of China'', Pelican History of Art, 3rd ed 1971, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), LOC 70-125675
*Spink, Walter M., ''Ajanta: History and Development Volume 5: Cave by Cave'', 2006, Brill, Leiden, , [http://ift.tt/2DZE1oT online]
[[Category:Formas de escultura]]
[[Category:Arquitectura rupestre]]
http://ift.tt/2FvnndW
