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History of children in the military
Gog the Mild: Moving from Children in the military
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[[File:Chinesechildsoldier.jpg|thumb|250px|upright|A [[Kuomintang|Chinese Nationalist]] soldier, age 10, from the Chinese Army in India waiting to board a plane in Burma, May 1944]]
'''Children in the military''' are children (defined by the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] as persons under the age of 18) who are associated with military organizations, such as state [[Military|armed forces]] and [[Violent non-state actor|non-state armed groups]].<ref name=":2">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Throughout history and in many cultures, children have been involved in military campaigns.<ref name="Wessells">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> For example, thousands of children participated on all sides of the First World War and the Second World War.<ref name=":41"></ref><ref name=":43">[[Norman Davies]], [https://ift.tt/2FWA85U ''Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw,''] Pan Books 2004 p.603</ref><ref name="Rosen2005">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref name="Kucherenko2011">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Children may be trained and used for combat, assigned to support roles such as porters or messengers, or used for tactical advantage as [[human shield]]s or for political advantage in [[propaganda]].<ref name=":2" /><ref></ref>
Children are easy targets for [[military recruitment]] due to their greater susceptibility to influence compared to adults.<ref name="ReferenceB" /><ref name=":32">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (2 for 1)</ref><ref name="Wessells" /><ref name=":22"></ref> Some children are recruited by force while others choose to join up, often to escape poverty or because they expect military life to offer a [[rite of passage]] to maturity.<ref name="Wessells" /><ref name=":12" /><ref name=":103"/>
==Pre-20th century==
[[File:NinoHeroe.jpg|thumb|200px|upright|left|Mexico honors [[Niños Héroes|its cadets]] who died in the Battle of Chapultepec (1847).]]
[[File:UnionPowderMonkey.jpg|thumb|200px|upright|left|A [[powder monkey]] on a Union vessel, American Civil War.]]
Throughout history and in many cultures, children have been extensively involved in military campaigns.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
The earliest mentions of minors being involved in wars come from antiquity. It was customary for youths in the Mediterranean basin to serve as aides, charioteers and armor bearers to adult warriors. Examples of this practice can be found in the Bible, such as David's service to King Saul, in Hittite and ancient Egyptian art, and in ancient Greek [[Greek mythology|mythology]] (such as the story of Hercules and Hylas), philosophy and literature.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2) In a practice dating back to antiquity, children were routinely taken on a campaign, together with the rest of a military man's family, as part of the baggage.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
The Roman Empire made use of youths in war, though it was understood that it was unwise and cruel to use children in war, and Plutarch implies that regulations required youths to be at least sixteen years of age.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
In medieval Europe young boys from about twelve years of age were used as military aides ("[[squires]]"), though in theory their role in actual combat was limited. The so-called [[Children's Crusade]] in 1212 recruited thousands of children as untrained soldiers under the assumption that divine power would enable them to conquer the enemy, although none of the children entered combat. According to the legend, they were instead sold into slavery. While most scholars no longer believe that the Children's Crusade consisted solely, or even mostly, of children, it nonetheless exemplifies an era in which entire families took part in a war effort.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
Young boys often took part in battles during early modern warfare. When Napoleon was faced with invasion by a massive Allied force in 1814 he conscripted many teenagers for his armies. Orphans of the Imperial Guard fought in the Netherlands with Marshal MacDonald and were between the ages of 14 and 17.<ref>Michael Leggiere, The Fall of Napoleon: The Allied Invasion of France 1813–1814, pg.99–100</ref> Many of the conscripts who reported to the ranks in 1814 were referred to as Marie Louises after the Empress Marie Louise of France; they were also known as "The Infants of the Emperor". These soldiers were in their mid-teens.<ref>Stephen Pope, Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars, p. 318</ref> One of their more visible roles was as the ubiquitous "[[Drummer boy (military)|drummer boy]]". The film ''Waterloo'', based on the Battle of Waterloo, depicts French drummer boys leading Napoleon's initial attack, only to be gunned down by Allied soldiers.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
During the age of sail, young boys formed part of the crew of British Royal Navy ships and were responsible for many essential tasks including bringing powder and shot from the [[Magazine (artillery)#Naval magazines|ship's magazine]] to the gun crews. These children were called "powder monkeys."Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
[[File:Child soldier in the US Civil War.jpg|thumb|200px|upright|Drummer boy [[John Clem]] during the American Civil War.]]
During the American Civil War a young boy, Bugler John Cook, served in the US Army at the age of 15 and received the Medal of Honor for his acts during the Battle of Antietam, the bloodiest day in American history.<ref>Slinger, P. W. Children at War. New York: Pantheon Books, 2005.</ref> Several other minors, including 11-year-old [[Willie Johnston (Medal of Honor recipient)|Willie Johnston]], have also received the Medal of Honor.<ref></ref>
By a law signed by Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 a disproportionate number of Jewish boys, known as the [[cantonist]]s, were forced into military training establishments to serve in the army. The 25-year conscription term officially commenced at the age of 18, but boys as young as eight were routinely taken to fulfill the quota. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
In the final stages of the Paraguayan War, children fought in the Battle of Acosta Ñu against the Allied forces of Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay. The day is commemorated as a national holiday in Paraguay.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
During the Boshin War, the pro-''shōgun'' Aizu Domain formed the , which was made up of the 16 to 17-year-old sons of Aizu samurai. During the Battle of Bonari Pass and the Battle of Aizu they fought the Satcho forces who supported the Imperial cause. A detached unit of Byakottai was cut off from the rest of the unit and retreated to Iimori Hill, which overlooked Aizu-Wakamatsu Castle. From there, they saw what they thought was the castle on fire. 20 of the detached unit committed ''seppuku'' while [[Iinuma Sadakichi|one was unsuccessful]]. He was saved by a local peasant.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
==World War I==
[[File:Momčilo Gavrić i major Stevan Tucović.jpg|thumbnail|Momčilo Gavrić and another soldier reporting to major Stevan Tucović, 1916.]]
The youngest known soldier of World War I was [[Momčilo Gavrić (soldier)|Momčilo Gavrić]], who joined the 6th Artillery Division of the Serbian Army at the age of 8, after Austro-Hungarian troops in August 1914 killed his parents, grandmother, and seven of his siblings.<ref name="novosti">[https://ift.tt/2G340cV Momčilo Gavrić – najmlađi vojnik Prvog svetskog rata] ("Večernje novosti", 31 August 2013)</ref><ref name=AuntieMabel></ref><ref name=BiografskiRecnik></ref>
In the West, boys [[Youngest British soldier in World War I|as young as 12]] were caught up in the overwhelming tide of patriotism and in huge numbers enlisted for active service. Others enlisted to avoid harsh and dreary lives. Typically many were able to pass themselves off as older men, such as George Thomas Paget, who at 17 joined a [[Bantam (military)|Bantam]] battalion in the Welsh Regiment. The last surviving combat veteran of the War was [[Claude Choules]], who enlisted in the [[Royal Navy]] at age 14 and saw his first action at the Battle of Jutland at 15.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2) In the Gallipoli campaign, otherwise known as "Çanakkale", children as young as 15 fought in the trenches. 120 children fought in the "15'liler" or "The 15s" company, with no known survivors.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
==Spanish Civil War==
Many child soldiers fought in the Spanish Civil War:
Chapter 3 |url=https://ift.tt/2G0MpGq |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://ift.tt/2pF1vGW |archivedate=18 March 2015 |df=dmy }}</ref>}}
==World War II==
In World War II, children frequently fought in insurrections in both the Allied and Axis forces.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
In World War II the youngest member of the United States Military was 12-year-old [[Calvin Graham]]. He lied about his age when he enlisted in the US Navy, and his real age was not known until after he was wounded.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Legality of child soldiers in World War II===
The legality relating to the use of children in armed conflicts, as soldiers or in other capacities, has changed significantly in the last century.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2) Following World War I, in 1924 the [[League of Nations]] adopted the [[Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child]].<ref name="auto"></ref> Despite this attempt to protect children's rights, stating they must be "protected against every form of exploitation,"<ref name="auto"/> the rise of [[fascism]] that led to the start of World War II left millions of children again unprotected – gassed, killed or orphaned.<ref></ref>
===Definition of a Child===
The lack of legal protection for children in times of war, which allows for their exploitation, can be linked to the lack of a universally recognized definition of a child during World War II.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2) Prior to the creation of the United Nations during World War II, protection of child welfare was predominantly embodied in the laws of war, [[jus in bello]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> These laws sought to outlaw war.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> In relation to protecting the rights of children involved in the conflict, this concept failed to address the idea of a child-soldier at the time of World War II.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2) Furthermore, there was virtually no criminal liability placed on the child where a breach of jus in Bello occurred.<ref></ref> No legal limits excluded children being involved in armed conflicts, nor was there any definition of what a child was in relation to their ability to be involved in conflicts.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
Now, by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the definition of a child is "a human being below the age of 18 years unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier".<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Hitler Youth===
The Hitler Youth (''Hitlerjugend'') was established as an organisation in Nazi Germany that physically trained young people and indoctrinated them with Nazi ideology. At the start of the war the Hitler Youth totalled 8.8 million members. Numbers decreased significantly (to just over one million) once the war began as many local and district leaders were drafted for the national army. Previous average age for local and district leaders was 24, but this changed to those who were 16 and 17 years of age. These youths were in command of up to 500 boys.<ref name="historyplace"/> Even younger boys from the ages of 10–14 years could be involved in the Hitler Youth movement, under the [[Deutsches Jungvolk]].<ref name="historyplace"/><ref name="auto2"></ref>
Huge numbers of youths were removed from school in early 1945 and sent on, essentially, suicide missions.<ref name="Express"/>
One Hitler Youth soldier, Heinz Shuetze, aged 15, was only given a half day of training with [[Panzerfaust|a primitive form of anti-tank grenade launcher]]. He was immediately given an SS uniform and directed to the front lines to fight.<ref name="Express"></ref> Hitler Youth activities often included learning to throw grenades, dig trenches, bayonet drills and moving under barbed wire under pistol fire.<ref name="auto2"/> The Hitler Youth was essentially an army of fit, young Germans that Hitler created and trained to fight for their country. They had the choice to either follow Nazi party orders or face trial with the possibility of execution.<ref name="auto2"/>
The boys of Hitler Youth first saw action following the British Air Raids on Berlin in 1940. In 1942 the Wehrertüchtigungslager or WELS (Defense Strengthening Camps) were created in Germany, which was designed to train Hitler Youth boys aged 16–18. By 1943, Hitler Youth boys were facing the forces of the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Russia.<ref name="historyplace"/>
Girls were also involved in Hitler Youth operations, although in a limited capacity, through the [[Bund Deutscher Mädel]] (BDM, the [[League of German Girls]]). Avoiding direct armed conflict, their primary role was to produce healthy, racially pure baby boys.<ref name="historyplace"/> They were also required to run 60 metres in 14 seconds, throw a ball at least 12 metres, march for 2 hours and swim 100 metres.<ref name="historyplace"/>
===SS Youth Division===
Towards the end of the war, the Germans established an entire tank division with the majority of its recruits being 16 and 17-year-old boys from the Hitler Youth.<ref name=Scpritamus>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> In the 1st Battalion over 65% were under 18 years old, and only 3% were over 25.<ref name="History Net"></ref> There were more than 10,000 boys in this division,<ref name="historyplace"/> the [[12th SS Panzer Division]] of the ''Hitlerjugend''. In the Battle of the Normandy the division suffered 60% casualties, most of whom were teenagers.<ref name="History Net"/> These young soldiers acquired a formidable reputation for their violent and unforgiving practices, such as shooting prisoners, and were responsible for at least 64 deaths of British and Canadian prisoners-of-war between June7–16, 1944.<ref name="historyplace">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Towards the end of World War II, as Germany suffered more casualties, more young people volunteered. These children saw extensive action and were among the fiercest and most effective German defenders in the [[Battle of Berlin]].<ref name=Scpritamus/>
===Other German Involvement===
In late 1944 the [[Volkssturm|People's Militia]] ("Volkssturm") was formed in Germany in anticipation of an Allied invasion. Men of ages 16–60 were conscripted into this militia.<ref name="historyplace"/> Children as young as 8 were reported captured by American troops, with boys aged 12 and under used to man artillery units. Even girls were being used in combat, operating anti-aircraft guns alongside the boys.<ref name="historyplace"/>
===Jewish Resistance===
During the Holocaust Jews of all ages participated in the Jewish resistance. Most Jewish resistance took place after 1942 when the Nazi atrocities became clear.<ref name="auto6"></ref> Many Polish political leaders fled Warsaw at the onset of war, and those who remained were generally executed, jailed or forced to serve on the Jewish Council (''Judenrat'').<ref name="auto7"></ref> More than 100,000 young Jews participated in the resistance movement, despite the Germans outlawing such activity.<ref>International School for Holocaust Studies. [https://ift.tt/2G0MycW "Youth Movements"], ''Shoah Resource Center'', Retrieved on 22 April 2015.</ref> Many members of the youth movement [[Hashomer Hatzair]] fought in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943. The participation of children in this armed resistance is usually regarded as heroic.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Soviet Union (Red Army)===
A number of child soldiers served in the Soviet Union's armed forces during World War II. In some cases orphans also unofficially joined the Soviet Red Army. Such children were affectionately known as "sons of the regiment" (Russian: сын полка) and sometimes willingly performed military missions such as reconnaissance. Officially the age of military conscription was 18 for those without secondary education and 19 for those who had been educated beyond that. .<ref>Simkin, John. [https://ift.tt/1GCZD6L "The Red Army"], ''Spartacus Educational'', Retrieved on 23 April 2015.</ref>
===Home Guard (UK)===
In the United Kingdom boys of 17 were accepted into the Home Guard when it was formed in 1940 in preparation for a German invasion and as a last line of defence.<ref name="The Real Dad's Army"></ref> On 27September 1942 the minimum age was lowered to 16 provided there was parental consent.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Japanese Youth Military Groups===
In anticipation of the possible Allied invasion of Japan Japanese military authorities trained teenagers to fight the enemy with bamboo spears and other improvised weapons. Some Japanese children aged 17 years volunteered to be Kamikaze suicide pilots.<ref name=Scpritamus/> Prior to this Japanese school children experienced increased military training introduced through their physical education classes, with military drills becoming a staple part of their curriculum.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
The Japanese Imperial Army mobilized students aged 14–17 years on Okinawa island for the Battle of Okinawa. This mobilization was conducted by the Ministry of the Army. The military authorities ordered schools to force almost all students to "volunteer" as soldiers. Sometimes they counterfeited the necessary documents.
After losing the Battle of Okinawa in June 1945, the Japanese government enacted new laws in preparation for the decisive battles in the main islands. They were the laws that made it possible for boys aged 15 or older and girls aged 17 or older to be drafted into the army as combat troops. Those who escaped the draft were punished by imprisonment.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)<ref name="auto8">Eigen, Louis D. [https://ift.tt/2pBK4XB "Child soldiers are unfortunately nothing new"], ''Scriptamus.wordpress.com'', Retrieved on 26 April 2015.</ref>
===Changes since WWII to protect children===
The introduction of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child in 1989 was the first time that any formal commitment was entered into that specified and protected the human rights of children.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> This Convention set out the civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
Currently the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) defines a child soldier as "any child – boy or girl – under eighteen years of age, who is part of any kind of regular or irregular armed force or armed group in any capacity".<ref>[https://ift.tt/1x58Z0b "Fact sheet: Child Soldiers"] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2), ''UNICEF'', Retrieved on 26 April 2015.</ref> The age limit of 18 is relatively new, only introduced in 2002 under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Prior to 2002 the 1949 Geneva Convention and the 1977 Additional Protocols set 15 as the minimum age to participate in armed conflict.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Convicting children of World War II crimes===
It is a contentious issue whether children should be able to be prosecuted for committing [[war crimes]].<ref>McCollough, Lauren. [https://ift.tt/2G75AKT "The Military Trial of Omar Khadr: Child Soldiers and the Law"] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2), [https://ift.tt/2pzEFjO "Crimes of War Project"] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2), Retrieved on 26 April 2015.</ref> Following the creation of the United Nations in 1945, and subsequent international conventions such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, childrens' rights have been asserted and protected.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Immediately following the Second World War children involved in the conflict were not able to be prosecuted, as the legislative instruments did not exist to do so. Currently international law does not prohibit children from being prosecuted for war crimes they commit, although article 37 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child does limit the punishment a child can receive. This stipulates "neither capital punishment nor life imprisonment without possibility of release shall be imposed for offences committed by persons below eighteen years of age".<ref></ref>
Under Article 8(2)(b)(xxvi) of the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] (ICC), which was adopted in 1998, and came into force in 2002, "Conscripting or enlisting children under the age of fifteen years into the national armed forces or using them to participate actively in hostilities" is a war crime.<ref>[https://ift.tt/1JpAkEe "Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court"], ''International Criminal Court'', Retrieved on 27 April 2015.</ref>
Under the Paris Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or armed groups those children accused of war crimes should primarily be treated as victims and treated in accordance with international law under [[restorative justice]], rehabilitation that is consistent with child protection treaties and principles.<ref name=":2" />
There were some cases from World War II where children were prosecuted for war crimes for actions undertaken during the war. Two 15-year-old ex-Hitler Youth members were convicted of violating the laws of war by being party to a shooting of a prisoner of war. The youths' age was a mitigating factor in their sentencing.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> No child has been prosecuted for a war crime since World War II, by any court or military tribunal.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
<gallery heights="250px" widths="300px" mode="nolines">
File:Polish Boy Scouts fighting in the Warsaw Uprising.jpg|Polish ''[[Szare Szeregi]]'' fighters during the Warsaw Uprising 1944.
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-J28536, Volkssturm, Einsatz einer Hitler-Jugend-Kompanie.jpg|Members of a ''Hitlerjugend'' company of the ''Volkssturm'', February 1945
File:Soviet Child Soldier.JPG|Child soldier in the Soviet Union, 1944.<ref></ref>
</gallery>
==Post World War II==
===Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos===
In a notorious case the ''Khmer Rouge'' group exploited thousands of desensitized conscripted children to commit mass murders and other inhuman acts during the Cambodian genocide. The indoctrinated child soldiers were taught to follow any order without hesitation.<ref></ref>
=== Northern Ireland ===
During the [[The Troubles|Troubles]] (c. 1960s to 1998), it was common for paramilitary groups to recruit and use children, including as combatants.<ref name=":27">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref></ref> Five children in Republican [[Paramilitary|paramilitary groups]], seven in Loyalist paramilitary groups, and five in the [[British Armed Forces|British armed forces]], died during the conflict.<ref name=":27" /> The youngest, Cathleen McCartland, was recruited by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and was aged 12 when she was killed in Belfast.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Sierra Leone===
Thousands of children were recruited and used by all sides during Sierra Leone's conflict (1991–2002), including the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC), and the pro-government Civil Defense Forces (CDF). Children were often forcibly recruited, given drugs and used to commit atrocities. Thousands of girls were also recruited as soldiers and often subjected to sexual exploitation. Many of the children were survivors of attacks on village, while others were found abandoned. In his book ''[[A Long Way Gone|A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Child Soldier]]'', Ishmael Beah chronicles his life during the conflict in Sierra Leone.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
In June 2007 the Special Court for Sierra Leone found three men from the rebel Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) guilty of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and other serious violations of international humanitarian law, including the recruitment of children under the age of 15 years into the armed forces. With this the Special Court became the first-ever UN backed tribunal to deliver a guilty verdict for the military conscription of children.<ref> , press release from the Special Court for Sierra Leone, 20 June 2007; [https://ift.tt/2G4S4XX "Sierra Leone Convicts 3 of War Crimes"], ''[[Associated Press]]'', 20 June 2007 (hosted by ''[[The Washington Post]]''); Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> The issue is also discussed in the ''[[Bones (TV series)|Bones]]'' episode, "[[Bones (season 8)|The Survivor In The Soap]]".
===Uganda===
[[Joseph Kony]] began the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) in 1987, originally to protect northern Ugandans from the 1986 military coup by the People's National Resistance Army,. Stating that he "received messages from God" Kony began attacking his own people, the Acholi, to establish a new theocratic government in Uganda based on the principles of the "Ten Commandments of God". This attempt by the LRA to gain control of the Ugandan government via roaming armies has used boy as well as girl-children as soldiers,<ref></ref> such as [[Grace Akallo]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
The LRA expansion into South Sudan, the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo has used large numbers of children as active combatants and participants in extreme violence. On the 21October 2008 an appeal by the UN Security Council was made asking for the LRA to cease all military action in the DRC immediately.<ref></ref> On 14June 2002 Uganda deposited its instrument of ratification of the [[Rome Statute]], and on 16December 2003 the Government of Uganda referred the situation concerning northern Uganda to the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC).<ref></ref> The ICC investigated the situation<ref></ref> and on 14October 2005 issued indictments against Lord's Resistance Army leader Joseph Kony and four other commanders: Vincent Otti; Raska Lukwiya (indictment terminated, deceased); Okot Odhiambo; and Dominic Ongwen) for war crimes. The warrant for Kony, Otti and Odhiambo includes the alleged crime of the forced enlisting of children contorary to the Rome Statute Art. 8(2) (e)(vii).<ref>Yasmin Anwar [https://ift.tt/2G0MPwu Damning report on Uganda war crimes], [https://ift.tt/2G6c8JM UC Berkeley NewsCenter]</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
The National Resistance Army also made use of child soldiers.<ref name=green47></ref>
==References==
Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
[[File:Chinesechildsoldier.jpg|thumb|250px|upright|A [[Kuomintang|Chinese Nationalist]] soldier, age 10, from the Chinese Army in India waiting to board a plane in Burma, May 1944]]
'''Children in the military''' are children (defined by the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] as persons under the age of 18) who are associated with military organizations, such as state [[Military|armed forces]] and [[Violent non-state actor|non-state armed groups]].<ref name=":2">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Throughout history and in many cultures, children have been involved in military campaigns.<ref name="Wessells">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> For example, thousands of children participated on all sides of the First World War and the Second World War.<ref name=":41"></ref><ref name=":43">[[Norman Davies]], [https://ift.tt/2FWA85U ''Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw,''] Pan Books 2004 p.603</ref><ref name="Rosen2005">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref name="Kucherenko2011">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Children may be trained and used for combat, assigned to support roles such as porters or messengers, or used for tactical advantage as [[human shield]]s or for political advantage in [[propaganda]].<ref name=":2" /><ref></ref>
Children are easy targets for [[military recruitment]] due to their greater susceptibility to influence compared to adults.<ref name="ReferenceB" /><ref name=":32">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (2 for 1)</ref><ref name="Wessells" /><ref name=":22"></ref> Some children are recruited by force while others choose to join up, often to escape poverty or because they expect military life to offer a [[rite of passage]] to maturity.<ref name="Wessells" /><ref name=":12" /><ref name=":103"/>
==Pre-20th century==
[[File:NinoHeroe.jpg|thumb|200px|upright|left|Mexico honors [[Niños Héroes|its cadets]] who died in the Battle of Chapultepec (1847).]]
[[File:UnionPowderMonkey.jpg|thumb|200px|upright|left|A [[powder monkey]] on a Union vessel, American Civil War.]]
Throughout history and in many cultures, children have been extensively involved in military campaigns.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
The earliest mentions of minors being involved in wars come from antiquity. It was customary for youths in the Mediterranean basin to serve as aides, charioteers and armor bearers to adult warriors. Examples of this practice can be found in the Bible, such as David's service to King Saul, in Hittite and ancient Egyptian art, and in ancient Greek [[Greek mythology|mythology]] (such as the story of Hercules and Hylas), philosophy and literature.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2) In a practice dating back to antiquity, children were routinely taken on a campaign, together with the rest of a military man's family, as part of the baggage.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
The Roman Empire made use of youths in war, though it was understood that it was unwise and cruel to use children in war, and Plutarch implies that regulations required youths to be at least sixteen years of age.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
In medieval Europe young boys from about twelve years of age were used as military aides ("[[squires]]"), though in theory their role in actual combat was limited. The so-called [[Children's Crusade]] in 1212 recruited thousands of children as untrained soldiers under the assumption that divine power would enable them to conquer the enemy, although none of the children entered combat. According to the legend, they were instead sold into slavery. While most scholars no longer believe that the Children's Crusade consisted solely, or even mostly, of children, it nonetheless exemplifies an era in which entire families took part in a war effort.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
Young boys often took part in battles during early modern warfare. When Napoleon was faced with invasion by a massive Allied force in 1814 he conscripted many teenagers for his armies. Orphans of the Imperial Guard fought in the Netherlands with Marshal MacDonald and were between the ages of 14 and 17.<ref>Michael Leggiere, The Fall of Napoleon: The Allied Invasion of France 1813–1814, pg.99–100</ref> Many of the conscripts who reported to the ranks in 1814 were referred to as Marie Louises after the Empress Marie Louise of France; they were also known as "The Infants of the Emperor". These soldiers were in their mid-teens.<ref>Stephen Pope, Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars, p. 318</ref> One of their more visible roles was as the ubiquitous "[[Drummer boy (military)|drummer boy]]". The film ''Waterloo'', based on the Battle of Waterloo, depicts French drummer boys leading Napoleon's initial attack, only to be gunned down by Allied soldiers.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
During the age of sail, young boys formed part of the crew of British Royal Navy ships and were responsible for many essential tasks including bringing powder and shot from the [[Magazine (artillery)#Naval magazines|ship's magazine]] to the gun crews. These children were called "powder monkeys."Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
[[File:Child soldier in the US Civil War.jpg|thumb|200px|upright|Drummer boy [[John Clem]] during the American Civil War.]]
During the American Civil War a young boy, Bugler John Cook, served in the US Army at the age of 15 and received the Medal of Honor for his acts during the Battle of Antietam, the bloodiest day in American history.<ref>Slinger, P. W. Children at War. New York: Pantheon Books, 2005.</ref> Several other minors, including 11-year-old [[Willie Johnston (Medal of Honor recipient)|Willie Johnston]], have also received the Medal of Honor.<ref></ref>
By a law signed by Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 a disproportionate number of Jewish boys, known as the [[cantonist]]s, were forced into military training establishments to serve in the army. The 25-year conscription term officially commenced at the age of 18, but boys as young as eight were routinely taken to fulfill the quota. Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
In the final stages of the Paraguayan War, children fought in the Battle of Acosta Ñu against the Allied forces of Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay. The day is commemorated as a national holiday in Paraguay.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
During the Boshin War, the pro-''shōgun'' Aizu Domain formed the , which was made up of the 16 to 17-year-old sons of Aizu samurai. During the Battle of Bonari Pass and the Battle of Aizu they fought the Satcho forces who supported the Imperial cause. A detached unit of Byakottai was cut off from the rest of the unit and retreated to Iimori Hill, which overlooked Aizu-Wakamatsu Castle. From there, they saw what they thought was the castle on fire. 20 of the detached unit committed ''seppuku'' while [[Iinuma Sadakichi|one was unsuccessful]]. He was saved by a local peasant.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
==World War I==
[[File:Momčilo Gavrić i major Stevan Tucović.jpg|thumbnail|Momčilo Gavrić and another soldier reporting to major Stevan Tucović, 1916.]]
The youngest known soldier of World War I was [[Momčilo Gavrić (soldier)|Momčilo Gavrić]], who joined the 6th Artillery Division of the Serbian Army at the age of 8, after Austro-Hungarian troops in August 1914 killed his parents, grandmother, and seven of his siblings.<ref name="novosti">[https://ift.tt/2G340cV Momčilo Gavrić – najmlađi vojnik Prvog svetskog rata] ("Večernje novosti", 31 August 2013)</ref><ref name=AuntieMabel></ref><ref name=BiografskiRecnik></ref>
In the West, boys [[Youngest British soldier in World War I|as young as 12]] were caught up in the overwhelming tide of patriotism and in huge numbers enlisted for active service. Others enlisted to avoid harsh and dreary lives. Typically many were able to pass themselves off as older men, such as George Thomas Paget, who at 17 joined a [[Bantam (military)|Bantam]] battalion in the Welsh Regiment. The last surviving combat veteran of the War was [[Claude Choules]], who enlisted in the [[Royal Navy]] at age 14 and saw his first action at the Battle of Jutland at 15.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2) In the Gallipoli campaign, otherwise known as "Çanakkale", children as young as 15 fought in the trenches. 120 children fought in the "15'liler" or "The 15s" company, with no known survivors.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
==Spanish Civil War==
Many child soldiers fought in the Spanish Civil War:
Chapter 3 |url=https://ift.tt/2G0MpGq |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://ift.tt/2pF1vGW |archivedate=18 March 2015 |df=dmy }}</ref>}}
==World War II==
In World War II, children frequently fought in insurrections in both the Allied and Axis forces.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
In World War II the youngest member of the United States Military was 12-year-old [[Calvin Graham]]. He lied about his age when he enlisted in the US Navy, and his real age was not known until after he was wounded.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Legality of child soldiers in World War II===
The legality relating to the use of children in armed conflicts, as soldiers or in other capacities, has changed significantly in the last century.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2) Following World War I, in 1924 the [[League of Nations]] adopted the [[Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child]].<ref name="auto"></ref> Despite this attempt to protect children's rights, stating they must be "protected against every form of exploitation,"<ref name="auto"/> the rise of [[fascism]] that led to the start of World War II left millions of children again unprotected – gassed, killed or orphaned.<ref></ref>
===Definition of a Child===
The lack of legal protection for children in times of war, which allows for their exploitation, can be linked to the lack of a universally recognized definition of a child during World War II.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2) Prior to the creation of the United Nations during World War II, protection of child welfare was predominantly embodied in the laws of war, [[jus in bello]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> These laws sought to outlaw war.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> In relation to protecting the rights of children involved in the conflict, this concept failed to address the idea of a child-soldier at the time of World War II.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2) Furthermore, there was virtually no criminal liability placed on the child where a breach of jus in Bello occurred.<ref></ref> No legal limits excluded children being involved in armed conflicts, nor was there any definition of what a child was in relation to their ability to be involved in conflicts.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
Now, by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the definition of a child is "a human being below the age of 18 years unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier".<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Hitler Youth===
The Hitler Youth (''Hitlerjugend'') was established as an organisation in Nazi Germany that physically trained young people and indoctrinated them with Nazi ideology. At the start of the war the Hitler Youth totalled 8.8 million members. Numbers decreased significantly (to just over one million) once the war began as many local and district leaders were drafted for the national army. Previous average age for local and district leaders was 24, but this changed to those who were 16 and 17 years of age. These youths were in command of up to 500 boys.<ref name="historyplace"/> Even younger boys from the ages of 10–14 years could be involved in the Hitler Youth movement, under the [[Deutsches Jungvolk]].<ref name="historyplace"/><ref name="auto2"></ref>
Huge numbers of youths were removed from school in early 1945 and sent on, essentially, suicide missions.<ref name="Express"/>
One Hitler Youth soldier, Heinz Shuetze, aged 15, was only given a half day of training with [[Panzerfaust|a primitive form of anti-tank grenade launcher]]. He was immediately given an SS uniform and directed to the front lines to fight.<ref name="Express"></ref> Hitler Youth activities often included learning to throw grenades, dig trenches, bayonet drills and moving under barbed wire under pistol fire.<ref name="auto2"/> The Hitler Youth was essentially an army of fit, young Germans that Hitler created and trained to fight for their country. They had the choice to either follow Nazi party orders or face trial with the possibility of execution.<ref name="auto2"/>
The boys of Hitler Youth first saw action following the British Air Raids on Berlin in 1940. In 1942 the Wehrertüchtigungslager or WELS (Defense Strengthening Camps) were created in Germany, which was designed to train Hitler Youth boys aged 16–18. By 1943, Hitler Youth boys were facing the forces of the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Russia.<ref name="historyplace"/>
Girls were also involved in Hitler Youth operations, although in a limited capacity, through the [[Bund Deutscher Mädel]] (BDM, the [[League of German Girls]]). Avoiding direct armed conflict, their primary role was to produce healthy, racially pure baby boys.<ref name="historyplace"/> They were also required to run 60 metres in 14 seconds, throw a ball at least 12 metres, march for 2 hours and swim 100 metres.<ref name="historyplace"/>
===SS Youth Division===
Towards the end of the war, the Germans established an entire tank division with the majority of its recruits being 16 and 17-year-old boys from the Hitler Youth.<ref name=Scpritamus>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> In the 1st Battalion over 65% were under 18 years old, and only 3% were over 25.<ref name="History Net"></ref> There were more than 10,000 boys in this division,<ref name="historyplace"/> the [[12th SS Panzer Division]] of the ''Hitlerjugend''. In the Battle of the Normandy the division suffered 60% casualties, most of whom were teenagers.<ref name="History Net"/> These young soldiers acquired a formidable reputation for their violent and unforgiving practices, such as shooting prisoners, and were responsible for at least 64 deaths of British and Canadian prisoners-of-war between June7–16, 1944.<ref name="historyplace">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Towards the end of World War II, as Germany suffered more casualties, more young people volunteered. These children saw extensive action and were among the fiercest and most effective German defenders in the [[Battle of Berlin]].<ref name=Scpritamus/>
===Other German Involvement===
In late 1944 the [[Volkssturm|People's Militia]] ("Volkssturm") was formed in Germany in anticipation of an Allied invasion. Men of ages 16–60 were conscripted into this militia.<ref name="historyplace"/> Children as young as 8 were reported captured by American troops, with boys aged 12 and under used to man artillery units. Even girls were being used in combat, operating anti-aircraft guns alongside the boys.<ref name="historyplace"/>
===Jewish Resistance===
During the Holocaust Jews of all ages participated in the Jewish resistance. Most Jewish resistance took place after 1942 when the Nazi atrocities became clear.<ref name="auto6"></ref> Many Polish political leaders fled Warsaw at the onset of war, and those who remained were generally executed, jailed or forced to serve on the Jewish Council (''Judenrat'').<ref name="auto7"></ref> More than 100,000 young Jews participated in the resistance movement, despite the Germans outlawing such activity.<ref>International School for Holocaust Studies. [https://ift.tt/2G0MycW "Youth Movements"], ''Shoah Resource Center'', Retrieved on 22 April 2015.</ref> Many members of the youth movement [[Hashomer Hatzair]] fought in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943. The participation of children in this armed resistance is usually regarded as heroic.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Soviet Union (Red Army)===
A number of child soldiers served in the Soviet Union's armed forces during World War II. In some cases orphans also unofficially joined the Soviet Red Army. Such children were affectionately known as "sons of the regiment" (Russian: сын полка) and sometimes willingly performed military missions such as reconnaissance. Officially the age of military conscription was 18 for those without secondary education and 19 for those who had been educated beyond that. .<ref>Simkin, John. [https://ift.tt/1GCZD6L "The Red Army"], ''Spartacus Educational'', Retrieved on 23 April 2015.</ref>
===Home Guard (UK)===
In the United Kingdom boys of 17 were accepted into the Home Guard when it was formed in 1940 in preparation for a German invasion and as a last line of defence.<ref name="The Real Dad's Army"></ref> On 27September 1942 the minimum age was lowered to 16 provided there was parental consent.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Japanese Youth Military Groups===
In anticipation of the possible Allied invasion of Japan Japanese military authorities trained teenagers to fight the enemy with bamboo spears and other improvised weapons. Some Japanese children aged 17 years volunteered to be Kamikaze suicide pilots.<ref name=Scpritamus/> Prior to this Japanese school children experienced increased military training introduced through their physical education classes, with military drills becoming a staple part of their curriculum.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
The Japanese Imperial Army mobilized students aged 14–17 years on Okinawa island for the Battle of Okinawa. This mobilization was conducted by the Ministry of the Army. The military authorities ordered schools to force almost all students to "volunteer" as soldiers. Sometimes they counterfeited the necessary documents.
After losing the Battle of Okinawa in June 1945, the Japanese government enacted new laws in preparation for the decisive battles in the main islands. They were the laws that made it possible for boys aged 15 or older and girls aged 17 or older to be drafted into the army as combat troops. Those who escaped the draft were punished by imprisonment.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)<ref name="auto8">Eigen, Louis D. [https://ift.tt/2pBK4XB "Child soldiers are unfortunately nothing new"], ''Scriptamus.wordpress.com'', Retrieved on 26 April 2015.</ref>
===Changes since WWII to protect children===
The introduction of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child in 1989 was the first time that any formal commitment was entered into that specified and protected the human rights of children.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> This Convention set out the civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
Currently the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) defines a child soldier as "any child – boy or girl – under eighteen years of age, who is part of any kind of regular or irregular armed force or armed group in any capacity".<ref>[https://ift.tt/1x58Z0b "Fact sheet: Child Soldiers"] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2), ''UNICEF'', Retrieved on 26 April 2015.</ref> The age limit of 18 is relatively new, only introduced in 2002 under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Prior to 2002 the 1949 Geneva Convention and the 1977 Additional Protocols set 15 as the minimum age to participate in armed conflict.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Convicting children of World War II crimes===
It is a contentious issue whether children should be able to be prosecuted for committing [[war crimes]].<ref>McCollough, Lauren. [https://ift.tt/2G75AKT "The Military Trial of Omar Khadr: Child Soldiers and the Law"] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2), [https://ift.tt/2pzEFjO "Crimes of War Project"] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2), Retrieved on 26 April 2015.</ref> Following the creation of the United Nations in 1945, and subsequent international conventions such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, childrens' rights have been asserted and protected.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Immediately following the Second World War children involved in the conflict were not able to be prosecuted, as the legislative instruments did not exist to do so. Currently international law does not prohibit children from being prosecuted for war crimes they commit, although article 37 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child does limit the punishment a child can receive. This stipulates "neither capital punishment nor life imprisonment without possibility of release shall be imposed for offences committed by persons below eighteen years of age".<ref></ref>
Under Article 8(2)(b)(xxvi) of the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] (ICC), which was adopted in 1998, and came into force in 2002, "Conscripting or enlisting children under the age of fifteen years into the national armed forces or using them to participate actively in hostilities" is a war crime.<ref>[https://ift.tt/1JpAkEe "Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court"], ''International Criminal Court'', Retrieved on 27 April 2015.</ref>
Under the Paris Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or armed groups those children accused of war crimes should primarily be treated as victims and treated in accordance with international law under [[restorative justice]], rehabilitation that is consistent with child protection treaties and principles.<ref name=":2" />
There were some cases from World War II where children were prosecuted for war crimes for actions undertaken during the war. Two 15-year-old ex-Hitler Youth members were convicted of violating the laws of war by being party to a shooting of a prisoner of war. The youths' age was a mitigating factor in their sentencing.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> No child has been prosecuted for a war crime since World War II, by any court or military tribunal.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
<gallery heights="250px" widths="300px" mode="nolines">
File:Polish Boy Scouts fighting in the Warsaw Uprising.jpg|Polish ''[[Szare Szeregi]]'' fighters during the Warsaw Uprising 1944.
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-J28536, Volkssturm, Einsatz einer Hitler-Jugend-Kompanie.jpg|Members of a ''Hitlerjugend'' company of the ''Volkssturm'', February 1945
File:Soviet Child Soldier.JPG|Child soldier in the Soviet Union, 1944.<ref></ref>
</gallery>
==Post World War II==
===Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos===
In a notorious case the ''Khmer Rouge'' group exploited thousands of desensitized conscripted children to commit mass murders and other inhuman acts during the Cambodian genocide. The indoctrinated child soldiers were taught to follow any order without hesitation.<ref></ref>
=== Northern Ireland ===
During the [[The Troubles|Troubles]] (c. 1960s to 1998), it was common for paramilitary groups to recruit and use children, including as combatants.<ref name=":27">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref></ref> Five children in Republican [[Paramilitary|paramilitary groups]], seven in Loyalist paramilitary groups, and five in the [[British Armed Forces|British armed forces]], died during the conflict.<ref name=":27" /> The youngest, Cathleen McCartland, was recruited by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and was aged 12 when she was killed in Belfast.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
===Sierra Leone===
Thousands of children were recruited and used by all sides during Sierra Leone's conflict (1991–2002), including the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC), and the pro-government Civil Defense Forces (CDF). Children were often forcibly recruited, given drugs and used to commit atrocities. Thousands of girls were also recruited as soldiers and often subjected to sexual exploitation. Many of the children were survivors of attacks on village, while others were found abandoned. In his book ''[[A Long Way Gone|A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Child Soldier]]'', Ishmael Beah chronicles his life during the conflict in Sierra Leone.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)
In June 2007 the Special Court for Sierra Leone found three men from the rebel Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) guilty of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and other serious violations of international humanitarian law, including the recruitment of children under the age of 15 years into the armed forces. With this the Special Court became the first-ever UN backed tribunal to deliver a guilty verdict for the military conscription of children.<ref> , press release from the Special Court for Sierra Leone, 20 June 2007; [https://ift.tt/2G4S4XX "Sierra Leone Convicts 3 of War Crimes"], ''[[Associated Press]]'', 20 June 2007 (hosted by ''[[The Washington Post]]''); Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> The issue is also discussed in the ''[[Bones (TV series)|Bones]]'' episode, "[[Bones (season 8)|The Survivor In The Soap]]".
===Uganda===
[[Joseph Kony]] began the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) in 1987, originally to protect northern Ugandans from the 1986 military coup by the People's National Resistance Army,. Stating that he "received messages from God" Kony began attacking his own people, the Acholi, to establish a new theocratic government in Uganda based on the principles of the "Ten Commandments of God". This attempt by the LRA to gain control of the Ugandan government via roaming armies has used boy as well as girl-children as soldiers,<ref></ref> such as [[Grace Akallo]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
The LRA expansion into South Sudan, the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo has used large numbers of children as active combatants and participants in extreme violence. On the 21October 2008 an appeal by the UN Security Council was made asking for the LRA to cease all military action in the DRC immediately.<ref></ref> On 14June 2002 Uganda deposited its instrument of ratification of the [[Rome Statute]], and on 16December 2003 the Government of Uganda referred the situation concerning northern Uganda to the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC).<ref></ref> The ICC investigated the situation<ref></ref> and on 14October 2005 issued indictments against Lord's Resistance Army leader Joseph Kony and four other commanders: Vincent Otti; Raska Lukwiya (indictment terminated, deceased); Okot Odhiambo; and Dominic Ongwen) for war crimes. The warrant for Kony, Otti and Odhiambo includes the alleged crime of the forced enlisting of children contorary to the Rome Statute Art. 8(2) (e)(vii).<ref>Yasmin Anwar [https://ift.tt/2G0MPwu Damning report on Uganda war crimes], [https://ift.tt/2G6c8JM UC Berkeley NewsCenter]</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
The National Resistance Army also made use of child soldiers.<ref name=green47></ref>
==References==
https://ift.tt/2G08HZ9
